"^*y  •^•rrg!  o^r^-^ 


CTfOMS 


v 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


STATS  HOIMAI.  SCHOOL 


Frontispiece,  Blaich's  Three  Industrial  Nations. 

Opening  of  the  Panama  Canal 


THREE 
INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

AN   INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY   OF 

ENGLAND,    GERMANY,   AND 

THE  UNITED  STATES 


BY 

LYDIA   R.    BLAICH 

SUPERVISING    PRINCIPAL,    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 
INDIANAPOLIS,    INDIANA 


AMERICAN   BOOK   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 


Copyright,  191 5,  by 
LYDIA   R.   BLAICH. 

Copyright,  1915,  in  Great  Britain, 
three  industrial  nations. 

E.   P.    I 


HF 
35T 


PREFACE 

Three  Industrial  Nations  has  been  prepared  for  grammar 
grade  pupils  whose  study  of  Geography  in  the  intermediate 
classes  has  given  them  a  sufficient  basis  for  an  understand- 
ing of  the  data  herein  contained.  It  assumes  that  man's 
industrial  activity,  growing  out  of  his  reaction  on  the 
earth's  natural  resources,  is  the  chief  subject  of  study  in 
Geography.  The  book  is,  therefore,  an  elementary  indus- 
trial text. 

During  the  last  decade  the  public  has  asked  that  the 
schools  lay  stress  on  essentials,  and  that  our  courses  prune 
away  incidentals,  seeing  that  the  limitations  of  time  and 
of  the  physical  and  mental  powers  of  the  child  preclude 
the  study  of  everything.  Hence,  instead  of  following  the 
time-honored  custom  of  treating  all  the  corners  of  a  conti- 
nent, important  and  otherwise,  in  a  single  volume,  three 
of  the  leading  nations  of  the  earth  have  been  chosen. 

The  selection  of  the  United  States  as  one  of  the  three 
is  self-evident.  England  and  Germany  have  been  chosen 
as  her  companions  in  this  treatment  both  on  account  of 
their  industrial  efficiency  and  their  close  racial  and  con- 
tributory relations  to  our  own  country.  Each  has  admira- 
ble characteristics  and  each  has  accomplished  much  to  be 
proud  of.  Great  Britain  has  excited  the  wonder  of  the 
world  by  its  victorious,  service-rendering  invasion  into 
every  quarter  of  the  globe.  Germany  has  compelled  the 
admiration  of  the  world  by  its  unparalleled  reformation 
of  internal  industrial  and  political  affairs,  and  by  its  sub- 


VI 


PREFACE 


sequent  commercial  activities  in  every  foreign  country. 
The  United  States  has  amazed  the  world  with  its  unsur- 
passed development  of  its  rich  natural  resources. 

In  his  "  America's  Interest  in  International  Conditions," 
A.  T.  Mahan  says  :  "  The  study  of  international  interests 
is  the  one  basis  of  sound  policy  for  statesmen.  This 
involves  a  wide  knowledge  of  contemporary  facts  as  well 
as  power  to  appreciate  them ;  but  for  a  nation  to  exert 
its  full  weight  in  the  world,  such  knowledge  and  appre- 
ciation must  be  widespread  among  its  plain  people  also." 

It  is  hoped  that  the  pupils  will  be  helped  to  understand 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  distinctive  national  spirit  of  each 
country  as  it  is  presented ;  and  thereby  so  enlarge  their 
personahties  as  to  become  consistently  international,  catch- 
ing from  each  nation  the  best  it  has  to  offer.  We  are 
more  than  citizens  of  the  United  States ;  we  are  world 
citizens.  In  order  that  the  children  may  serve  their  own 
country  best  they  must  receive  a  broad,  intelligent,  appre- 
ciative view  of  the  highest  modern  spirit  of  each  nation. 

This  volume  is  presented  to  the  boys  and  girls  not  as  a 
memory  text,  but  as  a  book  to  set  them  thinking.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  recitations  which  center  around  it  will  be 
symposiums  in  which  pupils  and  teacher,  in  the  presence 
of  the  open  book,  will  read,  question,  explain,  enlarge, 
illustrate ;  and  always  look  up  in  the  atlas  every  place 
mentioned  in  the  text  at  the  time  it  is  under  discussion, 
until  by  and  by  these  geographical  names  will  become 
household  friends. 

Furthermore,  it  is  hoped  that  when  the  study  of  this 
book  is  finished,  the  young  people  will  be  at  least  a  little 
better  prepared  to  serve  the  larger  problems  and  higher 
ideals  of  the  Greater  United  States  of  to-morrow. 

LYDIA   R.    BLAICH. 


MAP   OF 
THREE   INDUSTRIAL    NATIONS 

British  Empire,  German  Empire,  United  States 

Their  colonial  possessions,  and  the  principal  commercial  routes 
and  telegraph  lines  of  the  world. 


V/        ■^'*   Canton  //I 

v^'T'T)h"^>\^  4  [/7mL,PP,NEP««'»N.&  l^-  i-^-   c      'r  I         F    \      I 

■'  T  ^W         f       ./M  -  '~'      '■*•  CAROLI'^E'IS.  _•/_?■        !£  '.cANMiMr,   I 


^5 


/  :  .V    D    I    A     .V 


A     N    i^^'^^^- 


'/jl  Auckland'^: 


•*    '■•  oS  SAMOA*  is"    „*■   I  -,  „ 

WHtB„OES..      Suva   =Aji'*-",':vS:u':-*-^"C,£'Tr:  •(?•.  ^ 


,63° 


L.  KOATES  CO., 


90        Loiifc'itude      120    Eust  from  150       Gr 


150"     Lontjitude      120 


MAP  OF  THE  WORLD 

SHOWING 

liRITISH  EMPIRE,  GERMAJ^  EMPIRE 

AND  tiMTED  STATES, 

COLONIES,  ETC.,  PRINCIPAL 

COMMERCIAL  ROUTES  AND 

TELEGRAPH   LINES 


SCALE   OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  MILES 

On  tlie  PLquator 

I ' 1 1 1 

p        000     1000     liOO     2000 

/  On  the  SOt'h  Parallel  '• 

A i 1 1 V 

/O         600        lOpO       l.')00      2000^ 

On  the  eOt'h  Parallel 


VIII 


CONTENTS 

PART    I.     THE   WORLD'S   INDUSTRIAL   PROGRESS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.     A  Trip  around  the  World  in  Our  Town      .        .        i 
II      The  Land,  the  Arena  of  Industrial  Progress    .        7 

III.  The  Ocean,  an  Important   Factor  in  Industrial 

Pro(jress 15 

IV.  Man's  Development  of   the   Resources   of  Land 

and  Water 25 

PART    II.     THE    BRITISH    EMPIRE 

V.     England,  the    Foremost  Commercial  Nation    on 

Earth 35 

VI.     England,  a  Leader  in  the  World's  Industry      .      48 
VII.     England,  the  Founder  of  the  World's  Greatest 

Colonial  Empire 70 

VIII.     Political  and  Social  Conditions  in  the  United 

Kingdom         . .101 

PART    III.     THE   GERMAN    EMPIRE 

JX.     How  Germany  Cast  Off  Serfdom  and  Poverty  .     109 

X.     Modern  Germany 122 

XI.     Political  and  Social  Conditions  in  Modern  Ger- 
many       .         .■        .        .         .        .        .         ."        .154 

PART    IV.      THE    YOUNG    INDUSTRIAL    GIANT    OF    THE 

WEST 

XII.     Natural  Assets  of  the  United  States  .         .176 

XIII.     Field  Crops  of  the  United  States         .        .         •     183 


CONTENTS 


XI 


CHAPTER 

XIV.     Vegetables  and  Fruits 

XV.    The  Forests  of  the  United  States 
XVI.     Domestic  Animals  of  the  United  States 
XVII.     Fisheries  of  the  United  States 
XVIII.     Mineral  Wealth    of   the   United    States.     The 

Metals 

XIX.     Mineral  Wealth  of  the   United   States.      Non 

metallic  Minerals 

XX.     Industrial  Miracles  of  the  American  Factory 
XXI.     Domestic    Exchange    of    Goods    in    the  United 

States     

XXII.     The  Foreign  Commerce  of  the  United  States 

XXIII.  Colonial  Possessions  of  the  United  States 

XXIV.  The  Material,  Social,  and  Political  Status  of 

THE  United  States  To-day 

TABLES 

INDEX  ....  .... 


WAGE 

223 
244 

257 

274 
286 

343 
353 

359 
362 


LIST   OF   MAPS 

PAGE 

The  World,  showing  British  Empire,  German  Empire,  United  States, 

Principal  Commercial  Routes,  and  Telegraph  Lines     .         .         viii,  ix 

British  Isles — Political         .........  36 

United  Kingdom — Industrial  Map 50 

India 72 

Australia 76 

New  Zealand 79 

Africa 82 

Dominion  of  Canada     .........  88,  89 

Germany — Political 120 

Agriculture         .........  130 

Minerals 134 

United  States  — Political 174,175 

Rainfall 180 

Distribution  of  Corn           ......  184 

Wheat-growing     Areas    and     Chief     Flour-milling 

Centers 186 

Cotton-growing  Region  and  Chief  Centers  of  Cotton 

Manufacture 191 

i  Forest  Regions 214 

National  Forests  and  National  Parks          .         .         .  220 
Distribution  of  Cattle  and  Principal  Meat-packing 

Centers        ........  224 

Distribution  of  Swine         ......  230 

Distribution  of  Sheep         ......  233 

Iron  Ore  Regions       .......  257 

Alaska 268 

Distribution  of  Mineral  Fuels    .....  274 
Transportation  Lines          .....      308,  309 

Cuba 343 

IV               -to  Rico 345 

ama  Canal  Zone  .......  347 

iiian  Islands        .......  348 

..xippine  Islands      .         .         »         .         .         .         .  350 


THREE    INDUSTRIAL 

NATIONS 


THE    WORLD'S    INDUSTRIAL    PROGRESS 

CHAPTER  I 
A   TRIP   AROUND   THE   WORLD    IN    OUR   TOWN 

The  Kinship  of  the  World.  —  Did  it  ever  occur  to  you 
how  much  akin  the  whole  world  is?  The  familiar  articles 
all  around  you  speak  of  the  service  of  your  far-away, 
unknown  brothers  and  sisters. 

The  Parlor.  —  Look  about  your  parlor.  The  rug  on  the 
floor  may  have  come  from  Turkey.  The  Japanese  print 
adorning  the  wall  traveled  thousands  of  miles  across  the 
Pacific  from  Yokohama  to  San  Francisco,  before  it  came 
to  your  house.  The  mahogany  of  the  piano  came  from 
forests  in  Mexico  or  Central  America.  '  ^■^'  "  ^-  which 
have  grown  into  the  beautiful  tulips  on  ,  "ift 

from  Holland. 


2  THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

The  Dining  Room.  —  The  tablecloth  of  Irish  linen  came 
direct  from  Belfast.  The  dishes  of  Haviland  China  were 
made  in  France.  The  coffee  very  likely  came  from  Brazil, 
for  that  country  produces  three  fourths  of  the  world's 
supply ;  and  the  sugar  probably  was  imported  from  Cuba 
or  Hawaii,  for  these  islands  supply  much  of  the  world's 


I  Underwood  <fc  Underwood. 

Bleaching  linen,  Belfast,  Ireland. 


A  TRIP   AROUND  THE  WORLD   IN   OUR  TOWN 


^^BI^piSlI 

bB 

HUI 

u 

1^ 

gW^^MSM^WK 

11 

^ 

|H 

S 

™— ^^^^ 

■kn^^'  3SB 

B 

h,M^--!9^mii 

jL©« 

mm 

Ss'^S 

H 

^^^m 

■*'■«»»."- 

Hi. 

^ _^^._ 

^1 

An  ostrich  farm. 

sugar.  The  Swiss  cheese  was  made  among  the  famous 
Alps.  The  Malaga  grapes  were  grown  in  Spain.  These, 
and  many  other  things,  were  brought  by  steamers  and 
trains  from  distant  lands  in  order  to  add  to  your  pleasure 
and  welfare. 

The  Kitchen.  —  If  they  could  speak,  the  kitchen  utensils 
would  tell  many  interesting  stories.  The  enameled  granite 
ware  might  tell  a  German  tale,  and  the  carving  knife  might 
speak  of  busy  Sheffield  in  England.  The  cork  in  the  vine- 
gar jug  could  entertain  you  for  an  hour  with  the  story 
of  the  Spanish  cork  tree. 

The  Wardrobe.  —  Father's  cheviot  suit  was  made  of 
cloth  that  was  woven  at  Manchester,  England,  from 
wool  of  sheep  that  fed  on  the  hills  of  Scotland.  The 
threads  in  mother's  silk  dress  were  spun  by  silkworms  that 
fed  on  Chinese  mulberry  leaves.  The  plume  on  her  hat 
came  from  the  famous  ostrich  farms  of  South  Africa. 
Sister's  fancy  hair  ribbon,  with  the  gay  flowers  and  butter- 


4  THREE  INDUSTRI.\L   NATIONS 

flies  woven  into  it,  came  from  France.  Her  lace  collar  was 
made  by  Belgian  women  in  Brussels. 

Ornaments  and  Toys.  —  The  diamond  in  mother's  ring 
rested  years  ago  in  South  African  soil.  One  day  it  was 
picked  up  and  shipped  to  Amsterdam,  Holland,  and  from 
there  was  sent  to  an  American  jeweler.  Baby's  toys  were 
imported  from  Germany,  and  the  ivory  handle  of  your 
paper  knife  came  from  the  tusk  of  an  African  elephant. 

A  Walk  through  Our  Town.  —  Let  us  walk  along  the 
streets  of  our  town.  If  our  eyes  are  wide  open,  we  may 
see  many  people  of  other  countries.  Those  Itahans  digging 
a  sewer  came  from  sunny  Italy.  A  few  blocks  away  some 
negroes  are  pa\dng  the  street.  Their  ancestors  were 
brought  from  Africa  centuries  ago.  The  Chinaman  in  the 
laundry  at  our  right,  and  his  cousin  who  has  the  chop  suey 
restaurant  next  door,  once  cultivated  rice  fields  in  Asia. 

The  Department  Store.  —  By  and  by  we  enter  a  ten- 
story  department  store,  where  we  find  French  kid  gloves, 
German  yarn,  Swiss  cuckoo  clocks,  Austrian  glassware, 
Italian  corals,  English  china,  Russian  leather  goods,  Egyp- 
tian dates,  Chinese  tea,  Japanese  screens,  and  Persian  rugs. 

The  Circus  Parade.  —  As  we  leave  the  store,  a  circus 
parade  passes  by.  Here  are  the  elephant,  camel,  and  tiger 
from  Asia ;  the  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  monkey,  giraffe, 
lion,  and  antelope  from  equatorial  Africa ;  the  anteater 
and  boa  from  South  America ;  the  cockatoo,  lyre-bird,  and 
kangaroo  from  Australia.  Each  of  these  animals  had  a  long 
trip  across  the  seas  before  it  reached  our  town. 

The  Public  Library.  —  After  the  parade  has  passed  we 
enter  the  public  b'brary.  On  the  shelves  we  find  many 
books  written  in  strange  languages,  —  French,  Russian, 
German,   Hebrew,   and   Spanish.     They  were  printed   in 


A  TRIP   AROUND   THE   WORLD   IN   OUR   TOWN  5 

Paris,  Petrograd,  Leipzig,  and  Madrid.  Although  we 
may  not  be  able  to  read  them,  we  begin  to  realize  how 
civilized  men  the  worid  over  are  busy  thinking. 

Our  Service  to  the  World.  —  Is  it  not  wonderful  how 
much  the  nations  of  the  world  have  given  of  their  products, 
their  labor,  their  people,  their  words,  their  thoughts,  their 
culture  and  refinement  to  us  that  we  may  live  good  and 


Selling  rugs,  Persia. 


happy  lives?  Now  what  do  we  give  the  world  in  return 
for  these  many  services?  Fortunately,  ours  is  a  wealthy 
land  and  we  have  many  blessings  which  we  gladly  share 
with  others.  We  send  to  our  brother  nations  cotton,  iron 
and  steel,  wheat  and  flour,  and  petroleum.  Our  inventions 
also  find  their  way  into  foreign  towns  the  world  over,  — ■ 
reapers,  plows,  cotton  gins,  sewing  machines,  telephones, 
phonographs,  and  typewriters.     The  books  written  by  our 


6  THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

great  thinkers  are  translated  into  foreign  languages ;  for 
instance,  the  speeches  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  the  poems  of  Longfellow,  the  essays 
of  Emerson,  and  the  Indian  tales  of  Cooper.  Not  a  few  are 
the  lessons  of  alertness  in  business,  of  daring  in  times  of 
hardship  and  difficulty,  as  well  as  of  large-hearted  hospital- 
ity that  foreigners  have  learned  from  the  young  Republic. 
The  Value  of  Exchange.  —  This  exchange  of  products  is 
called  commerce.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  means  of  industrial 
progress  and  civilization.  The  wants  of  the  Indian,  as 
Columbus  found  him,  were  few.  His  food  consisted  of 
game  and  berries  found  in  the  forests,  and  maize  cultivated 
by  the  squaws.  His  clothes  were  simple  ;  his  house  was  a 
tent  of  skins.  Each  family  supphed  its  own  needs.  There 
was  little  trade  between  tribes ;  and  as  for  exchange  of  prod- 
ucts across  the  seas,  such  a  thing  was  altogether  unknown. 
How  different  is  the  case  with  civilized  man.  He  draws 
upon  the  whole  world  for  necessities  and  luxuries.  Many 
advantages  of  modern  life  would  be  impossible  were  it  not 
for  this  giving  and  taking  which  goes  on  between  the  nations. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Study  your  own  neighborhood,  and  make  a  Hst  of  products 
that  have  come  from  other  parts  of  the  world. 

2.  Point  out  on  the  map  or  globe  all  the  places  mentioned  in 
this  chapter. 

3.  Visit  a  department  store,  and  find  out  from  what  places 
its  stock  has  come. 

4.  On  the  globe  trace  the  ocean  voyages  which  six  articles  in 
your  home  made  in  order  to  reach  you. 

5.  Visit  the  place  in  which  your  father  or  some  other  relative 
works.  What  articles  made  there  are  sent  abroad?  Where? 
What  foreign  people  then  are  served  by  that  establishment  ?  , 


CHAPTER   II 


THE  LAND,   THE   ARENA   OF  INDUSTRIAL   PROGRESS 

Man,  a  Land  Creature.  —  Although  the  ocean  is  so  in- 
spiring and  helpful,  man  is  always  glad  to  put  his  foot 
upon  land  again  after 
a  trip  on  the  seas. 
For  man  is  a  land  crea- 
ture. He  may  roam 
on  the  ocean  for  weeks 
and  even  months ;  but 
by  and  by  he  must 
turn  in  again  to  the 
harbor  for  provisions, 
if  for  no  other  reasons. 
No  man  has  ever  been 
known  to  spend  all  his 
days  upon  the  water, 
while  billions  of  folks 
have  Hved  and  died 
upon  the  land  without 
one  glimpse  of  the  sea. 

Features  of  the 
Land.  —  The  land  pre- 
sents a  great  variety 
of  features.  There  are 
long  stretches  of  soft 

green  meadows ;  hills  where  sheep  and  cattle  roam ;  moun- 
tains covered  with  dark,  deep  forests,  and  honeycombed  with 
rich  mines;  canyons  with  walls  of  exquisite  colors,  exceeding 
blaich's  nations. 2  7 


A  canyon. 


8  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

in  beauty  anything  the  mind  of  man  can  imagine ;  narrow 
chasms  with  steep,  green-clad  slopes,  at  whose  feet  flow 
silvery  streams ;  volcanoes  breathing  out  ashes  and  lava ; 
abrupt  precipices  over  which  gigantic  waterfalls  tumble ; 
unlimited  fields  of  golden  grain  ;  majestic  snow-clad  peaks ; 
and  boundless  plains  of  sand,  as  yet  unfruitful,  awaiting  the 
wisdom  of  man  to  discover  their  usefulness. 

Land  and  Water.  —  The  water  covers  seven  tenths  of 
the  globe,  while  the  land  occupies  only  three  tenths. 
Nearly  three  fourths  of  the  land  is  in  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere, while  more  than  four  fifths  of  the  sea  is  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere.  In  the  order  of  size,  the  continents 
rank  as  follows :  Asia,  Africa,  North  America,  South 
America,  Europe,  and  Australia.  There  is  considerable 
difference  in  coast  lines,  which  in  the  past  have  had  much 
to  do  with  the  development  of  nations.  Europe  is  the 
most  irregular,  followed  in  order  by  Asia,  North  America, 
South  America,  Africa,  and  Australia.  In  general,  those 
countries  that  have  been  most  closely  connected  with  the 
sea  through  their  irregular  coasts  have  made  the  greatest 
progress. 

Man's  Progress  Due  to  Two  Causes.  — The  progress  man 
makes  is  dependent  chiefly  upon  two  great  causes ;  the  nat- 
ural conditions  of  his  surroundings,  and  the  nature  of  man 
himself.  The  resources  that  nature  suppHes  vary  greatly 
in  different  localities,  both  as  to  quantity  and  quality ;  and 
the  talents  of  men  differ  also.  These  are  among  the  rea- 
sons why  there  are  different  degrees  of  civilization. 

Progress  Depends  on  Soils.  —  Man  cannot  exist  without 
food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  For  most  of  these  he  must 
look  to  the  soil.  Grains,  vegetables,  fruits,  textile  plants, 
and  trees  grow  out  of  the  ground,  and  the  abundance  of 


THE   LAND,   THE   ARENA   OF   INDUSTRIAL   PROGRESS      9 

plant  life  depends  very  largely  upon  the  fertility  of  the 
soil.  Some  sections,  like  the  Mississippi  Valley,  are  unusu- 
ally fertile,  and  become  the  homes  of  progressive  peoples. 
Others,  like  the  Sahara,  with  their  unlimited  stretches  of 
sand,  support  very  little  population. 


Life  on  a  desert. 


Climate  Determines  Progress.  —  Without  light,  heat, 
and  rain,  the  soil  is  unable  to  produce  life  of  any  kind. 
Sunshine  is  overabundant  in  some  places  and  too  scant  in 
others  to  produce  the  best  results.  In  the  equatorial  belts 
of  South  America,  Africa,  and  Asia,  excessive  sunlight  and 
rain  produce  rank  vegetation ;  and  the  dense  forests  and 
jungles  are  the  homes  of  many  large,  wild  animals.  The 
heat  and  moisture  of  these  regions  weaken  the  people,  and 
as  a  result,  the  plant  life  remains  uncontrolled,  the  animals 
are  not  domesticated,  and  there  is  a  general  lack  of  indus- 
trial enterprise.    Life  remains  primitive  and  progress  is  slow. 


lO 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


The  frigid  zone  is  still  more  unfortunate.     Here  the  sun- 
shine is  too  limited.     The  darkness  lasts  long  and  the  cold 


Eskimo  family,  Alaska. 

is  intense.  Moisture  comes  in  the  form  of  snow  and  ice. 
The  ground  is  frozen  several  feet  deep  —  a  serious  handicap 
to  mining  and  quarrying.  In  the  absence  of  quarries  and 
trees,  the  most  important  building  material  consists  of  blocks 
of  ice.  The  Eskimo  supports  himself  by  hunting  wild  ani- 
mals. The  flesh  of  these  animals  is  used  for  food,  the  skins 
for  clothing,  and  the  bones  are  used  to  make  furniture. 
There  are  no  factories,  no  surplus  products  for  commerce, 
no  schools,  and  no  signs  of  advanced  civilization. 

The  temperate  regions  of  the  northern  and  southern 
continents  are  best  for  human  development.     There  the 


THE   LAND,    THE   ARENA   OF   INDUSTRIAL   PROGRESS      II 

heat,  light,  and  rainfall  enable  man  to  produce  the  largest 
and  best  crops.  The  climate  is  varied,  so  that  man  is  com- 
pelled to  provide  in  seasons  of  plenty  for  the  months  when 
nature  demands  a  rest.  The  hard  labor  required,  together 
with  the  good  returns  it  yields,  develops  man  to  the  highest 
plane.  In  the  temperate  belt  are  found  the  busiest  farms, 
factories,  harbors,  and  trade  routes ;  and  here  the  greatest 
industrial  nations  have  been  developed. 

Winds  play  an  important  part  in  man's  welfare.  They 
distribute  heat  and  cold  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  profit  or 
loss  to  man.  It  is  the  winds  that  carry  life-giving  vapors 
from  the  ocean  to  the  land.  Comparatively  few  people 
can  live  in  places  that  the  winds  visit  with  a  dry,  hot 
breath,  as  in  some  parts  of  Arabia.  Where  the  breezes 
spread  their  balmy,  moisture-laden  wings,  as  they  do  over 
western  Europe,  there  thrive  the  foremost  nations. 

Surface,  a  Factor  in  Progress.  —  The  height  of  the  land 
varies  from  depressions  below  the  sea  level  to  elevations  of 
several  miles.     Swamps  are  a  drawback  to  industry.     Low, 


A  farm  in  a  level  plain. 


12 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


level  plains  are,  on  the  whole,  places  where  men  thrive  best. 
Hills  and  mountains  are  often  the  scenes  of  prosperous 
communities  because  the  grass  gives  rise  to  dairying,  or  the 
trees  afford  excellent  timber.  Mountains  often  keep  cold 
winds  from  a  territory  that  would  otherwise  be  exposed, 
thereby  giving  to  some  lands  special  opportunities  for 
progress.  Such  is  the  case  with  the  Alps,  which  insure 
Italy  a  semitropical  cHmate.  Mountains  increase  the 
productivity  of  the  soil  by  condensing  the  moisture  of  rain- 
laden  winds.  High  peaks,  such  as  those  of  the  Rockies, 
Sierras,  and  Cascades,  are  too  cold  to  be  centers  of  industry  ; 
yet  their  snow-covered  sides  are  reservoirs  of  moisture  from 
which  thousands  of  fertile  acres  below  may  be  irrigated,  and 
thus  become  the  homes  of  many  families. 


Mt.  Stephen,  Rocky  Mountains,  Canada. 


THE  LAND,    THE   ARENA   OF   INDUSTRIAL   PROGRESS      1 3 

Minerals  Contribute  to  Progress.  —  Regions  rich  in  coal, 
iron,  gold,  and  stone  are  busy  centers  of  industry,  and  sup- 
port some  of  the  largest  populations.  The  supremacy  of 
the  foremost  nations  of  to-day  is  largely  due  to  their  posses- 
sion of  an  abundance  of  coal  and  iron,  which  are  the  two 
most  useful  minerals. 

Rivers  and  Lakes  Promote  Development.  —  The  water  on 
the  land,  as  well  as  that  of  the  ocean,  is  of  great  value  in 
industrial  progress.  Rivers  and  lakes  supply  fish  for  food. 
Without  streams,  successful  farming  would  be  out  of  the 
question.  Rivers  are  quite  as  helpful  in  draining  as  in 
watering  the  land.  Factories  are  run  by  power  furnished 
by  waterfalls.  And,  finally,  waterways  furnish  cheaper- 
transportation  than  railroads. 

Industrial  Progress  Depends  on  Man  Himself.  —  The 
inherent  qualities  in  men  themselves  are  the  most  impor- 
tant factor  in  their  progress.  Thus  far  the  white  race  has 
taken  the  lead  in  civilization.  The  characteristics  which 
have  given  the  white  man  his  preeminence  are  love  of 
work,  ability  to  endure  hardships,  love  of  adventure,  a 
desire  for  wandering,  a  spirit  of  independence,  inventive^ 
genius,  and  the  power  to  adapt  himself  to  new  conditions. 
These  qualities  have  given  the  world  the  busiest  work- 
shops, the  most  active  trade,  and  the  best  governments. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

I.  Name  several  parts  of  the  earth  where  there  are  long 
stretches  of  soft,  green  meadows ;  large,  sandy  plains.  Locate 
some  canyons  in  the  United  States.  Do  you  know  of  any 
volcanoes?  Where  are  they?  How  far  would  you  have  to 
travel  from  your  home  to  reach  snow-clad  peaks?  In  what 
direction  would  you  go  ? 


14  THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

2.  Trace  the  outlines  of  all  the  continents  on  the  map.  Make 
a  list  of  chief  coast  waters  of  each.  How  do  the  coasts  compare 
in  number  of  indentations  ? 

3.  Draw  a  line  to  represent  the  equator.  Sketch  the  outUne 
of  each  continent  that  is  wholly  or  partly  north  of  the  equator. 
Of  each  one  south  of  it.  Compare  the  land  masses  of  the  two 
hemispheres  as  to  extent. 

4.  Make  a  collection  of  pictures  of  the  races  of  men.  Indi- 
cate on  the  map  the  home  of  each. 

5.  What  nations  control  Africa  ?     Australia  ? 


CHAPTER  III 

THE   OCEAN,    AN   IMPORTANT   FACTOR  IN 
INDUSTRIAL   PROGRESS 

The  Sea,  a  Mighty  Phenomenon.  —  The  mightiest  natu- 
ral phenomenon  on  earth  is  the  sea,  whose  waters  cover 
more  than  seven  tenths  of  its  surface.  The  greatest  depth 
of  the  ocean  (near  Hawaii)  is  equal  to  five  and  a  half  miles, 
which  is  also  the  greatest  height  of  mountains  (Mt. 
Everest  in  the  Himalayas).  Its  average  depth,  however,  is 
five  times  the  average  height  of  the  land.  Scientists  tell 
us  that  the  volume  of  the  ocean  equals  thirty  times  that  of 
the  land  above  sea  level.  The  largest  ocean,  the  Pacific,  is 
four  times  as  large  as  the  largest  continent,  Asia.  The  Atlan- 
tic could  more  than  cover  both  Americas ;  the  Indian  Ocean 


Breakers  at  Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey. 
IS 


l6  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

could  spread  over  Africa  twice  and  still  have  ample  water 
left  to  make  an  ocean  as  large  as  the  Arctic ;  while  the  Ant- 
arctic is  equal  to  the  combined  area  of  Europe  and  Oceania. 

Great  Ocean  Distances.  —  The  oceans  are  so  wide  that 
the  distances  across  them  are  measured  in  terms  of  thou- 
sands of  miles.  Across  the  Atlantic,  for  instance,  from  New 
York  to  Liverpool,  the  distance  is  3,042  miles;  from  New 
York  to  Cape  Town,  6,795  miles.  Across  the  Indian 
Ocean,  from  Aden,  Arabia,  to  Melbourne,  it  is  6,489  miles. 
Pacific  voyages  are  still  longer :  4,202  miles  from  Yokohama 
to  Vancouver;  9,452  miles  from  Manila  to  Panama  via 
Honolulu ;  10,076  miles  from  Hong  Kong  to  the  southern 
point  of  South  America.  It  takes  large  steamers  eighteen 
days  to  go  from  Hong  Kong  to  Vancouver ;  nineteen  from 
Colon  to  Liverpool ;  twenty  from  Aden  to  Albany,  Aus- 
tralia ;  twenty  from  Rio  Janeiro  to  Southampton ;  and 
twenty-five  from  Sydney  to  Panama. 

Unity  of  the  Waters  of  the  Earth.  —  Man  stands  in  awe 
of  the  vastness  of  the  waters  of  the  earth.  The  close  con- 
nection of  all  their  parts  is  no  less  remarkable.  You  can 
pass  from  ocean  to  ocean  without  knowing  where  one  begins 
and  the  other  ends.  Every  indentation  along  any  coast 
opens  into  the  deep  sea.  With  the  exception  of  salt  lakes 
and  their  tributaries,  every  lake,  stream,  and  brooklet 
hurries  toward  and  ultimately  reaches  the  ocean  —  the  all- 
father  of  waters.  The  ocean,  then,  is  an  unbroken  connect- 
ing link  joining  nations. 

The  Ocean,  a  Carrier  of  Commerce.  —  The  ocean,  which 
was  formerly  a  dreaded  barrier  separating  countries,  has 
recently  become  a  friendly  highroad  connecting  them.  In 
our  time  it  makes  possible  busy  workshops,  a  wonderful 
world  commerce,  and  the  universal  brotherhood  of  man. 


THE  OCEAN,   A  FACTOR   IN   INDUSTRIAL  PROGRESS     17 


The  sea  isjpternationaj  property  and  is  thus  a  great  high- 
way that  is  open  to  all  nations.  Four  fifths  of  the  trade 
between  nations  is  carried  on  the  sea.  A  ship  can  be  moved 
through  water  with  less  power  than  a  train  of  the  same 
weight  can  be  moved  on  a  railroad,  and  therefore  the 
transportation  of  freight  by  water  is  cheaper  than  by  land. 
Moreover,  ships  require  no  ballasted  roadbed  to  give 
security,  no  wooden  ties  to  support  the  weight,  and  no  iron 
rails  to  guide  the  passage.  The  saltness  of  sea  water 
lowers  the  freezing  point  below  that  of  fresh  water;  and, 
as  a  result,  the 
harbors  on  the 
seacoast,  except 
those  in  very 
cold  latitudes, 
are  open  to  com- 
merce through- 
out the  year, 
while  the  har- 
bors on  lakes  of 
fresh  water  are, 
in  many  instances,  ice-bound  during   the   whiter. 

In  the  sea  there  are  periodic  movements  of  the  water 
called  tides.  These  are  great  waves  of  water  rising  and 
falling  twice  each  day,  usually  with  an  interval  of  twelve 
hours  and  twenty-live  minutes  between  high  tides.  As 
these  waves  reach  the  coast  they  push  the  water  up  the 
rivers,  thus  making  a  considerable  increase  in  the  depth 
of  water.  Thereby  ships  are  enabled  to  steam  many  miles 
upstream.  This  gives  inland  cities,  like  Hamburg,  Liver- 
pool, and  London,  excellent  oceanic  trade  advantages,  while 
they  are,  at  the  same  time,  protected  from  coast  storms. 


A  modern  steamship. 


1 8  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

Ocean  Products.  —  The  ocean  not  only  carries  commerce, 
but  it  also  yields  many  important  products.  Millions 
of  pounds  of  fish  are  annually  lifted  from  its  depths.  The 
chief  food  fishes  are  cod,  herring,  salmon,  and  mackerel. 
Whales,  seals,  walruses,  and  sea  otters  are  other  sea  ani- 
mals, yielding  such  products  as  oils,  furs,  and  ivory.  Much 
wealth  is  represented  in  the  annual  catch  of  oysters  con- 
sumed by  man.  The  greatest  fishing  grounds  in  the  world 
are  off  the  west  coast  of  Europe,  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
North  America,  and  the  Pacific  shores  from  San  Francisco 
to  Alaska.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  Europeans  and 
Americans  are  engaged  in  the  fishing  industries. 


A  fishing  fleet. 


Seaweeds  yield  valuable  fertihzers,  iodine,  and  other 
chemicals.  The  Chinese  cure  certain  of  the  weeds  and  use 
them  as  food.     Sponges  are  found  off  the  Bahama  and  Flor- 


THE   OCEAN,   A   FACTOR   IN   INDUSTRIAL  PROGRESS      1 9 

ida  coasts.  Pearls  are  gathered  at  Ceylon  ;  amber  is  found 
along  the  shores  of  the  Baltic ;  and  coral  is  obtained  from 
various  tropical  islands. 

The  Source  of  the  Rain.  —  A  large  amount  of  water  in 
the  form  of  vapor  rises  from  the  sea,  and  is  wafted  by  the 
wind  to  the  land,  where  it  falls  as  rain  or  snow.  Thus  the 
ocean  contributes  the  moisture  that  is  necessary  to  plants, 
animals,  and  man,  and  so  helps  to  create  the  food,  the 
lumber,  and  the  textile  products  which  later  it  assists  in 
distributing. 

The  Oceans  are  International  Property.  —  The  oceans 
belong  to  all  nations.  Beyond  the  three-mile  limit,  people 
of  any  country  may  fish  and  trade  to  their  hearts'  content. 
Each  nation  is  entitled  to  all  the  space  it  can  possibly  use. 

The  Ocean,  a  Factor  in  National  Greatness.  —  Enter- 
prising nations  through  their  ocean  commerce  have  amassed 
great  wealth.  England  is  said  to  have  increased  hers  a 
thousandfold  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Most  of  the 
seafaring  nations  have  acquired  large  colonial  possessions. 
This  has  been  true  of  the  Romans,  the  Spaniards,  the  Portu- 
guese, the  Dutch,  and  the  French,  in  the  past.  To-day,  the 
English  outstrip  all  other  nations  in  the  number  and  value 
of  their  colonies,  as  well  as  in  oceanic  trade.  The  Germans 
and  the  Americans  have  developed  the  same  oceanic  spirit 
in  the  last  forty  years,  and  are  to-day  England's  commercial 
rivals.  By  overcoming  the  dangers  and  hardships  of  the 
sea,  seafaring  people  have  developed  great  physical  strength, 
unflinching  courage,  and  keen  intellect. 

The  Indian  Ocean.  —  While  we  Americans  know  almost 
nothing  about  the  Indian  Ocean,  wide-awake  European 
coimtries  fully  appreciate  its  value  as  a  carrier  of  merchan- 
dise which  passes  through  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the 


20 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Suez  Canal  on  the  way  between  Europe  and  Asia,  Africa,  or 
Australia.  The  many  ships  of  many  lands  that  sail  over 
this  tropical  sea  give  proof  of  the  brotherhood  of  man  in 
the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  In  addition  to  them,  the  cables 
at  the  bottom  of  the  Indian  Ocean  give  to  the  people  of 
far-away  Austraha  interests  in  common  with  those  of  Asia 
and  Africa. 

The  Atlantic  Ocean.  —  At  the  present  time,  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  is  the  world's  greatest  international  trade  artery. 
This  is  due  to  several  causes.  It  connects  the  most  capable 
industrial  nations.  The  most  extensive  land  slopes  of 
Europe  and  the  Americas  face  this  body  of  water.  Many 
of  the  world's  largest  and  commercially  most  active  rivers, 
such  as  the  Mississippi,  the  Amazon,  the  Nile,  and  the 
Rhine,  carry  their  merchandise  to  the  Atlantic.  Much  of 
this  ocean  Hes  within  the  temperate  zone.  The  smaller 
width  of  the  Atlantic  as  compared  with  the  Pacific  makes 


Landing  an  ocean  cable,  Coney  Island,  New  York. 


THE  OCEAN,    A   FACTOR   IN   INDUSTRIAL   PROGRESS      21 

freight  charges  less.  No  other  ocean  is  so  well  supphed  with 
safe,  natural  harbors.  There  are  seventeen  transatlantic 
cables  across  the  Atlantic  whereas  only  two  connect  the 
opposite  shores  of  the  Pacific. 

Of  all  the  arms  of  the  Atlantic,  the  North  Sea  and  the 
Mediterranean  have  been  the  most  prominent  international 
trade  routes,  because  of  the  powerful  nations  adjoining 
them.  In  our  own  time  no  other  body  of  water  is  so 
crowded  with  steamship  lines  and  submarine  cables  as  the 
North  Sea.  In  ancient  times,  when  the  Mediterranean 
was  the  center  of  the  known  world,  it  was  by  far  the  most 
important  commercial  waterway.  It  carried  the  navies  of 
Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Greece,  Carthage,  and  Rome.  The 
decadence  of  these  powers  and  the  rise  of  northern  and 
western  Europe  caused  it  to  decUne  in  importance.  But 
with  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869  Europe  and  Asia 
were  brought  closer  together,  and  a  mighty  impetus  was 
thereby  given  to  Mediterranean  business. 

The  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea  will  un- 
doubtedly become  commercial  rivals  of  the  European  arms 
of  the  Atlantic  on  account  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

The  Pacific  Ocean.  —  The  Pacific  is  bordered  by  many 
of  the  highest  mountain  chains  in  the  world  —  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  the  Cascades,  the  Andes,  and  the  Himalayas. 
The  shore  line  of  this  ocean  is  strikingly  regular,  and  hence 
there  is  a  scarcity  of  good  harbors.  With  the  exception  of 
the  United  States  and  Japan,  the  great  modern  powers  do 
not  He  on  the  Pacific.  Its  enormous  width  has  not  hereto- 
fore invited  the  sailors,  with  their  imperfect  sea  craft. 

But  some  of  these  conditions  are  being  changed,  and  the 
Pacific  promises  to  be  a  rival  of  the  Atlantic  in  the  future. 
Fast  steamers  and  wireless  telegraphy  are  diminishing  the 


22 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


distance  between  the  Americas  and  Asia.  Asiatic  countries 
are  awakening  to  modern  progress.  Tlieir  productivity  is 
growing,  and  the  wants  of  the  people  are  becoming  more 
varied,  which  means  more  business  for  the  Pacific.  More- 
over, the  United  States  is  just  well  started  in  the  develop- 
ment of  her  western  resources.  Steamship  lines  on  the 
Pacific  Ocean  are  growing  in  number,  and  before  long  more 
cables  will  be  laid  in  its  depths.  At  present,  there  is  one 
long  American  cable  connecting  San  Francisco  with  Hawaii 
and  Manila ;  a  British  cable  between  Vancouver,  Canada, 
and  Sydney,  Australia ;  and  a  few  minor  lines  connecting 
Australia  and  New  Zealand  with  Asia  and  near-by  islands. 
As  the  Pacific  becomes  a  more  prominent  international 

highway,  its  thou- 
sands of  islands  will 
prove  valuable  trade 
centers. 

Steamship  Service 
on  the  Ocean.  — 
Only  one  hundred 
years  ago,  Robert 
Fulton,  an  American, 
invented  the  first 
steamboat,  in  which 
he  steamed  up  the 
Hudson.  All  the 
world  looked  on  in 
amazement  at  this 
Clermont,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  it  was 
so  small,  so  slow,  and 
The  Clermont.  SO    clumsy ;    for  did 


THE   OCEAN,    A   FACTOR   IN   INDUSTRIAL   PROGRESS      23 


Library  of  a  large  steamship. 


it  not  travel  by 
steam,  and  was  it 
not  independent  of 
the  wind  ?  Since  the 
building  of  the  Cler- 
mont, steamship  con- 
struction and  travel 
have  made  astonish- 
ing progress.  Fifty 
years  ago  an  ocean 
voyage  meant  weeks 
of  wretchedness  and 
perils.  Now  it  means 
comfort  and  com- 
parative safety. 
Shipbuilders  have  raced  with  one  another  in  constructing 
the  fleetest,  most  sumptuous  ocean  palaces.  We  are 
living  in  the  age  of  the  five-day  trip  from  Europe  to 
America.  Ships  are  now  fitted  out  with  elaborate  kitchens, 
fine  dining  rooms,  beautiful  reception  halls,  elegant 
drawing-rooms,  comfortable  bedrooms,  convenient  eleva- 
tors, writing  rooms,  libraries,  modem  bathrooms,  swimming 
pools,  and  concert  halls.  The  general  assembly  rooms  are 
decorated  with  beautiful  paintings  and  sculptures. 

There  are  many  steamship  lines.  Those  most  familiar 
to  us  are  the  Cunard,  White  Star,  North-German  Lloyd, 
Hamburg- American,  Pacific  Mail,  Japan  Mail,  and  the 
Oriental.  One  of  the  largest  steamships  afloat  at  present 
carries  more  than  five  thousand  passengers  and  enough 
freight  to  fill  a  train  of  cars  forty-four  miles  in  length.  It 
is  nine  stories  high  above  the  water  line  —  a  real  floating 
skyscraper.  This  vessel  has  private  dining  rooms,  a  tea 
blaich's  nations. 3 


24  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

garden,  palm  gardens,  and  sun  parlors.  Telephone  service 
connects  the  rooms  so  that  persons  may  communicate 
with  one  another  without  leaving  their  staterooms.  This 
ship  has  powerful  wireless  telegraph  apparatus,  which 
enables  it  to  send  and  receive  messages  across  the  width 
of  the  Atlantic ;  so  it  is  always  in  direct  communication 
with  the  land.  Ocean  travel  has  become  as  cheap,  com- 
fortable, and  rapid  as  land  travel.  No  wonder  that  the 
sea  no  longer  separates,  but  rather  unites,  the  peoples  of 
the  earth.  Americans  may  rejoice  that  their  country  is 
most  favorably  situated  with  reference  to  the  two  most  im- 
portant oceans. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Visit  a  steamship  agency.  Inquire  the  cost  of  a  passage 
across  the  Atlantic  from  New  York  to  Liverpool ;  of  a  similar 
ticket  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama.  Explain  difference 
in  prices. 

2.  Get  a  map  of  steamship  lines  and  play  the  game  of  tracing 
vessels  from  port  to  port. 

3.  Point  out  on  the  globe  every  place  mentioned  in  this 
chapter. 

4.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  hemispheres,  designate  the  places 
where  the  various  ocean  harvests  are  gathered. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  chief  indentations  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Of  those  of  the  Pacific.     Chief  harbors  of  each. 

6.  How  much  shorter  is  the  trip  between  New  York  and 
Valparaiso,  Chile,  by  way  of  the  Panama  Canal  than  byway  of 
Cape  Horn  ? 

7.  Find  out,  if  you  can,  the  cost  per  word  of  a  cablegram 
from  any  European  port  to  any  American  port.  Study  a  cable- 
gram code. 

8.  What  advantages  has  the  wireless  over  the  cable?  What 
disadvantages  ? 


CHAPTER   IV 

MAN'S  DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   RESOURCES   OF 
LAND   AND    WATER 

The  World,  a  Great  Workshop.  —  Agriculture,  mining, 
manufacture,  and  commerce  are  the  leading  industries  by 
which  man  secures  and  prepares  the  resources  of  the  earth 
for  his  own  use.  In  all  the  industrial  activities  there  is 
constant  progress.  The  invention  of  time-saving  devices, 
the  irrigation  of  deserts,  the  draining  of  swamps,  the  harness- 
ing of  waterfalls,  and  the  improvement  of  rivers  are  some 
of  the  ways  by  which  the  earth  is  being  converted  into  a 
better  home  for  man. 

Agriculture.  —  At  first,  man  obtained  his  food  from  wild 
plants  and  animals.  Later,  he  began  to  domesticate  them. 
When  seeds  were  planted  in  cultivated  ground,  when  the 
growing  crop  was  cared  for,  and  then  harvested  and  stored 
for  future  use,  a  great  advance  was  made.  The  herding 
of  domestic  animals  on  natural  grass  lands  may  be  even  an 
earlier  form  of  farming  than  the  cultivation  of  plants. 
Century  by  century  man  improved  his  methods  of  agricul- 
ture. New  plants  were  cultivated  and  new  animals  do- 
mesticated ;  and  more  and  more  of  the  earth  was  brought 
under  cultivation.  It  will  prove  interesting  to  make  a  list 
of  the  most  important  products  obtained  by  farming. 

Reclamation  of  Deserts.  —  By  irrigation  large  areas  of 
desert  lands  have  been  changed  to  fertile  farm  lands. 
Snow-covered  peaks  in  Colorado,  Idaho,  Oregon,  California, 

25 


26  THREE   INDUSTRI.\L   NATIONS 

and  other  states  are  the  fountain  heads  of  rivers  whose 
waters  of  late  years  have  been  tapped  and  sent  in  irrigation 
flumes  to  thirsty  valleys.     The  water  supply  is  controlled 


An  irrigation  canal,  Egypt. 

by  large  reservoirs  built  among  the  mountains.  The  result 
is  that  millions  and  milhons  of  bushels  of  grain,  apples, 
peaches,  nuts,  lemons,  and  oranges  have  been  produced  in 
what  were  once  desert  lands.  We  owe  this  extra  wealth 
to  the  brain  of  man,  who  discovered  how  to  turn  these 
waste  lands  into  fruitful  gardens.  Large  areas  in  Spain, 
Italy,  Egypt,  India,  and  Austraha  also  are  irrigated. 

In  some  regions  artesian  wells  bring  to  the  surface  the 
water  from  underground  suppUes.  Large  areas  in  Texas, 
South  Dakota,  and  other  western  states  are  irrigated  by 
these  flowing  wells.  In  places  where  the  water  does  not 
reach  the  surface  in  the  wells,  it  is  pumped  up  by  engines 
and  windmills,  and  thus  made  available  for  irrigation.  In 
the  oases  of  the  Sahara  desert  the  underground  water  rises 
to  the  surface  in  natural  wells,  and  date  palms  and  cereals 
grow  in  the  moist  earth.  Perhaps  by  means  of  wells  the 
Sahara  may  some  day  become  a  fruitful  paradise. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   RESOURCES   OF   LAND   AND   WATER      27 

Drainage  of  Marsh  Lands.  —  In  contrast  with  the  dry 
regions  are  others  that  are  water  soaked  and  flooded.  Such 
was  the  condition  of  nearly  half  of  the  country  of  the 
Netherlands,  much  of  which  lies  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  Dutch  turned  the  unhealthful  marshes  into  rich  grass 
lands  by  constructing  drainage  canals  and  great  sea  walls 
to  keep  the  water  out.  On  the  meadows,  which  have  been 
wrested  from  the  ocean,  fine  cattle  are  raised,  and  dairying 
is  an  important  industry  on  these  recovered  lands.  Many 
of  these  cattle  are  exported  to  England.  The  United 
States  has  many  swamps  that  need  to  be  drained.  The 
levees  built  along  the  Mississippi  have  reclaimed  thousands 


,  Daruit  Publishinu  Cu 

A  drainage  canal  in  the  Everglades,  Florida. 


of  acres.  Yet  there  remain  more  than  75,000,000  acres 
of  fertile  lands  in  the  United  States  covered  by  water  and 
rank  vegetation,  waiting  for  man  to  draw  great  wealth  out 
of  them. 


28  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

The  Beginning  of  the  Clothing  Industry.  —  In  cold  re- 
gions, man  required  clothes.  He  began  by  using  the  skins 
of  animals  for  this  purpose.  By  and  by  he  learned  to  make 
cloth  from  wool  and  fibrous  plants,  from  which  better  gar- 
ments could  be  made. 

Mining.  —  To  weave  the  fibers  into  cloth,  and  to  plant 
and  harvest  the  crops  were  difficult  tasks  in  the  beginning, 
owing  to  the  lack  of  proper  tools.  But  man,  the  worker, 
is  also  the  thinker.  Year  by  year,  and  century  by  century, 
his  senses  grew  keener  and  his  brain  more  and  more  alert. 
He  found  the  minerals  of  the  earth  and  learned  to  use  them. 
Iron  was  used  to  make  looms  and  reapers ;  coal,  petroleum, 
and  gas  were  burned  for  heat  and  light;  building  stones 
were  quarried  for  houses ;  and  gold,  silver,  and  precious 
stones  were  fashioned  into  costly  ornaments. 

Manufacturing.  —  Thousands  of  mills,  furnaces,  and  fac- 
tories in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world  give  proof  of  the 
importance  of  manufacturing.  Iron  and  steel  products, 
lumber,  furniture,  bricks  and  other  clay  products,  flour, 
and  dressed  meats  are  some  of  the  leading  products  of 
this  industry.  If  we  stop  to  make  a  fist  of  all  the  articles 
that  we  have  seen  in  houses,  on  farms,  in  streets,  in  stores, 
and  in  factories  we  may  get  some  idea  of  the  great  number 
and  variety  of  manufactured  products. 

Commerce.  —  At  first,  commerce  consisted  of  barter ; 
that  is,  the  exchange  of  one  article  for  another.  When 
money  came  into  use  the  exchange  of  goods  by  buying  and 
selHng  was  far  more  convenient  than  barter.  Commerce 
not  only  includes  the  buying  and  selHng  of  products,  but 
also  the  transportation  of  goods ;  and  with  the  building 
of  railroads  and  modem  steamships  commerce  developed 
very   rapidly.     To-day   carloads   of   goods   move   quickly 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   RESOURCES   OF   LAND   AND   WATER     29 

across  the  continents  and  ships  loaded  with  goods  ghdc 
noiselessly  from  land  to  land  over  the  trackless  seas.  The 
nations  are  vying  with  one  another  in  building  railroads 
and  ocean  steamships.  Modern  commerce  also  depends 
on  rapid  communication  for  making  business  transactions. 
Telegraphs  and  Telephones.  —  The  whole  world  has 
become  a  great  market,  and  people  hundreds  and  even 
thousands  of  miles  apart  often  desire  to  trade  with  one 
another.     A   century  ago  business  communications  were 


A  modern  passenger  train. 

made  by  letters  that  were  carried  by  men  on  horseback  or 
on  stages.  To-day  letters  are  carried  on  fast  mail  trains ; 
but  trains  are  not  sufficiently  swift  for  modern  commerce. 
By  telegraph  a  message  can  be  sent  in  an  hour  or  two  over 
a  distance  that  would  require  a  day  for  a  fast  train. 

In  1866  the  first  cable  was  laid  across  the  bottom  of  the 
Atlantic.  Now  messages  from  New  York  to  London, 
which  would  require  over  four  days  for  dehvery  if  carried 
on  the  fastest  ship,  can  be  sent  in  less  than  two  hours  by 
cable.     Still  more  recently  the  telephone  has  contributed 


30 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  RESOURCES  OF  LAND  AND  WATER  3 1 


its  service  to  the  commercial  world.  By  the  long-distance 
telephone  people  one  thousand  miles  apart  may  speak  to 
one  another.  The  telegraph  and  telephone  require  wires 
for  their  operation.  A  few  years  ago  Marconi  perfected 
a  system  of  sending  messages  without  wire.  By  means  of 
the  wireless  system,  stations  several  thousand  miles  apart 
can  communicate  with  one  another ;  and  ships  in  the  middle 
of  the  Atlantic  are  in  communication  with  each  bordering 
continent. 

Improvement  of  Rivers.  —  To-day,  the  leading  nations 
of  the  world  are  giving  much  attention  to  the  improvement 
of  rivers  in  order  to  increase  their  value  to  commerce.  In 
places  rivers  are  dredged  to  keep  the  channels  clear,  and 
stone  embankments  are  built  to  keep  the  water  in  the  deep 


Dredging  a  river. 

channels.  Forests  at  the  headwaters  of  rivers  are  being 
saved  from  destruction  in  order  to  regulate  stream  flow. 
In  forest  lands  a  large  part  of  the  rain  is  held  in  the  spongy 


32  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

soil  and  does  not  flow  off  rapidly.  Thus,  much  of  it  soaks 
into  the  ground,  and  appears  again  in  streams,  weeks  and 
even  months  after  the  rain  falls.  In  this  way  the  water  of 
rainy  seasons  keeps  the  streams  full  in  the  dry  seasons  of 
the  year.  When  the  forests  are  removed  to  make  room 
for  farms  and  cities,  the  rain  flows  rapidly  down  the  cleared 
slopes  into  the  streams ;  in  rainy  months  the  streams  are 
flooded,  and  they  have  little  water  in  the  dry  months. 
Thus  navigable  streams  have  become  useless  rivulets  during 
much  of  the  year.  Germany  has  long  given  much  atten- 
tion to  the  improvement  of  rivers.  As  a  result  the  Rhine 
River  is  to-day  worth  millions  for  commerce  where  for- 
merly it  was  noted  principally  for  its  scenery.  Our  own 
Congress  is  just  waking  up  to  the  importance  of  this  subject. 
Water  Power.  —  In  manufacturing,  one  of  the  necessary 
things  is  power  to  run  the  machinery  of  the  factories.  When 
the  Ujiited  States  was  a  young  country,  swift  streams  were 
much  used  for  this  purpose.  By  and  by  steam  power  was 
made  available,  and  the  rivers  were  neglected  ;  for  generally 
a  factory  with  steam  power  could  be  built  in  a  more  con- 
venient location  than  that  of  a  water  power  mill.  Years 
later,  when  men  learned  how  to  distribute  power  by  means 
of  electric  wires,  they  began  again  to  use  water  power. 
Dynamos  turned  by  water  wheels  generate  an  electric  cur- 
rent which  is  distributed  by  wires  to  factories  in  the  vicinity 
and  even  to  those  hundreds  of  miles  away.  Many  large 
falls,  like  Niagara,  are  harnessed  and  their  strength  is 
turned  into  electrical  power  which  is  used  to  light  cities, 
propel  electric  cars,  and  run  machinery.  But  while  many 
planing  mills,  cloth  factories,  flour  mills,  and  aluminum 
works  use  the  energy  of  waterfalls,  there  are  still  milUons 
of  capital  lying  dormant  in  our  streams. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   RESOURCES   OF   LAND   AND   WATER     33 

New  Industrial  Problems  Ahead.  —  Man  has  made 
marvelous  advancement,  but  still  there  remain  many  indus- 
trial problems  for  the  future  to  solve.  The  land  was  the 
first  element  with  which  man  grappled.  In  comparatively 
recent  times  he  attacked  the  ocean  with  undaunted  courage 
and  some  degree  of  understanding.  Even  yet  these  two 
mighty  forces  —  land  and  water  —  have  not  been  fully 
exploited.  Undoubtedly  there  are  unused  treasures  in 
both  that  we  know  nothing  about. 

The  third  great  element  —  the  air — has  received  little  at- 
tention as  a  factor  in  industrial  development.  The  inven- 
tion of  airships  is  the  dawn  of  a  new  industrial  age.  The 
flying  machine  will  enlarge  our  knowledge  of  the  uses  of 
the  air,  and  present  new  tasks  for  solution.  When  we 
solve  them,  the  earth  will,  no  doubt,  be  a  better  home  for 
man. 

Questions 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  leading  problems  of  conservation 
in  the  United  States  ? 

2.  What  has  been  done  in  your  town  or  county  to  make  it 
better  adapted  for  the  home  of  man  than  it  was  when  the 
white  race  first  settled  it?  Examples  of  such  improvements 
are  good  roads,  bridges,  electric  railroads,  levees,  drainage 
canals,  filling  in  of  swamps,  planting  forest  trees,  and  harnessing 
streams  for  water  power. 


How  does  England  maintain 
her  high  rank  in  industry  and 
her  supremacy  in  commerce  ? 


34 


THE    BRITISH    EMPIRE 


CHAPTER  V 

ENGLAND,   THE   FOREMOST   COMMERCIAL   POWER 
ON   EARTH 

England's  Supremacy  of  the  Sea.  —  In  more  than  one 
respect  the  British  Empire,  of  which  England  is  the  mother 
country,  has  for  three  centuries  been  the  foremost  power 
on  earth.  It  has  taken  the  lead  in  industry,  commerce, 
and  colonial  possessions. 

The  Empire  embraces  about  one  fifth  of  the  land  of  the 
earth  and  claims  more  than  one  fourth  of  the  world's 
inhabitants.  But  the  most  astonishing  fact  about  Eng- 
land, a  condition  which  the  other  nations  admire  and 
envy  most  in  her,  is  her  marvelous  supremacy  of  the  sea. 
To  attain  this  superiority  has  required  a  long  struggle. 
To-day  she  owns  the  largest  merchant  marine  ever  con- 
trolled by  any  nation.     How  did  this  come  about? 

Brief  Account  of  English  Commercial  Supremacy.  — 
The  early  English  population  was  composed  largely  of 
immigrants  from  European  countries  —  Denmark,  Ger- 
many,   and    France.     The    North    Sea    and    the    English 

35 


ENGLAND,   THE   FOREMOST   COMMERCIAL   POWER      37 

Channel  were  the  highroads  of  intercourse  between  the 
island  of  Great  Britain  and  the  mainland  of  Europe.  So, 
from  the  very  beginning  there  were  active  trade  relations, 
which  developed  into  a  great  commercial  spirit  that  grad- 
ually led  to  a  desire  for  world  supremacy.  The  merchants 
pushed  out  farther  and  farther  into  the  remote  seas,  until 
by  and  by  England  turned  her  face  not  only  toward  Europe 
but  toward  the  whole  world.  In  the  course  of  time,  Eng- 
land, in  common  with  other  European  countries,  looked 


An  English  ship  of  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century. 

with  longing  eyes  eastward  to  Asia  and  the  East  Indies, 
and  westward  to  the  Americas ;  but  she  was  by  no  means 
the  leader.  In  those  far-ofif  days  of  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries  there  was  glorious  rivalry  for  the 
dominion  of  the  sea,  the  conquest  of  new  lands,  and  new 
trade.  The  Dutch  and  the  Portuguese  preceded  England 
in  the  East,  and  Spain  gained  the  first  foothold  in  the  New 
World.  France  played  a  leading  role  in  North  America, 
while  Spain  controlled  South  America  and  Mexico.  Eng- 
land seemed  to  hold  the  fifth  place  in  the  commercial  race. 


38 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


ENGLAND,   THE   FOREMOST   COMMERCIAL   POWER      39 

But  in  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  centuries 
she  steadily  came  to  the  front.  Portugal  was  the  first  to 
lose  her  place;   later  Spain  declined. 

England  Defeats  Spain.  — As  late  as  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  (1550)  England's  rank  a,Si  a  sea  power 
was  not  high.  Spain  controlled  the  trade  of  the  East  and 
of  the  colonies  in  America.  The  two  countries  were  not  at 
all  friendly  to  each  other.  The  Spanish  king,  who  thought 
he  had  a  grievance  against  England,  built  a  large  fleet, 
known  as  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  declared  war  upon  his 
enemy.  Just  about  that  time  England's  power  burst  into 
blossom.  Her  daring  sea  captains  —  Drake,  Howard,  and 
others  —  were  determined  to  secure  some  control  of  the 
seas  and  as  large  a  slice  of  the  world  as  possible  for  their 
country.  One  fine  day  Drake  appeared  unexpectedly  in 
the  harbor  of  Cadiz,  Spain,  where  he  captured  several 
Spanish  vessels  and  burnt  many  more.  As  booty  he 
brought  home  a  ship  laden  with  valuable  merchandise 
obtained  from  eastern  Asia.  When  Drake's  countrymen 
saw  it  they  were  amazed  at  the  wealth  coming  from  for- 
eign commerce.  This  incident  spurred  them  on,  as  noth- 
ing had  ever  done  before,  to  master  the  seas. 

In  1588,  the  great  Spanish  Armada,  which  had  been 
rebuilt  and  enlarged  to  132  vessels,  set  out  to  attack  Eng- 
land. The  latter  gave  her  enemy  a  disastrous  defeat. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  the  commercial  decline  of 
Spain. 

Other  English  Conquests.  —  Exultant  at  their  victory 
over  the  Spaniards,  the  English  laid  new  and  greater  plans 
for  an  ocean  future  than  had  ever  been  dreamed  of  by 
any  other  nation.  From  that  time  on  they  faced  not  only 
Europe  but  the  whole  world.     Holland  was  still  in  the  lead. 


40  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

Her  ships  carried  most  of  the  world's  commerce,  including 
that  of  England.  In  order  to  check  Holland  and  increase 
their  own  trade,  the  Enghsh  passed  laws  requiring  that  all 
imports  into  Great  Britain  or  any  of  her  colonies  be  carried 
in  Enghsh  ships  manned  by  Enghsh  sailors.  This  took 
from  the  Dutch  much  of  their  foreign  trade  and  left  only 
France  as  a  commercial  rival  of  England. 

The  Enghsh  opened  up  a  vigorous  trade  with  Asia  by 
way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  They  also  established  the 
thirteen  colonies  along  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America, 
which  they  finally  lost.  But  just  previous  to  that  loss 
they  had  gained  Canada  from  France,  and  wrested  India 
from  French  control.  This  left  England  undoubtedly 
the  foremost  among  the  nations.  She  opened  trade  with 
Africa,  took  possession  of  some  of  the  largest  and  best 
territory  in  that  continent,  and  gained  control  in  Egypt. 
In  the  course  of  time  the  whole  continent  of  Austraha  fell 
to  her  lot.  Thus  England  in  commerce  and  colonies  has 
become  greater  than  any  other  nation. 

Growth  of  England's  Merchant  Fleet.  —  The  invention 
of  the  steamboat  about  loo  years  ago  caused  great 
changes  in  the  British  fleets.  The  Comet,  the  first  Eng- 
lish steamer,  was  built  four  years  after  Fulton  had  given 
the  world  his  invention.  She  carried  twenty-five  tons 
at  a  speed  of  three  miles  an  hour.  For  some  time 
steamers  kept  close  to  land.  Even  as  late  as  1835  an 
Enghsh  scientist  declared  that  a  trip  to  the  moon  was  quite 
as  possible  as  a  steamer  voyage  across  the  Atlantic,  al- 
though the  American  ship  Savannah,  equipped  as  both 
steamer  and  sailing  vessel,  had  made  one  fourth  of  her  trip 
across  by  steam  in  181 9.  Nevertheless,  on  April  4,  1838, 
the  Sirius  (tonnage  703  ;   length  178  feet)  with  ninety-four 


ENGLAND,    THE  FOREMOST   COMMERCIAL   POWER      41 

passengers  left  London  for  New  York,  which  she  reached 
in  eighteen  days.  The  tonnage  of  steamers  has  been 
increased  to  55,000;  the  length  to  nearly  1,000  feet;  and 
the  passenger  capacity  to  5,000.  To  enable  the  steamers 
to  go  faster  and  carry  heavier  loads  wooden  ships  gave  way 
to  iron  and  steel.  In  1839  the  United  Kingdom  owned  over 
28,000  sailing  vessels  and  only  824  steamers,  carrying  three 
and  one  third  million  tons  in  all.  By  1910  the  sailing  ves- 
sels were  reduced  to  9,090 ;  the  steamers  were  increased 
to  12,000;  and  the  total  cargoes  to  eleven  and  one  half 
milHon  tons.  This  does  not  include  the  597  warships 
which  to-day  are  entirely  distinct  from  merchant  vessels. 
British  ships,  besides  transporting  their  own  products, 
do  a  large  part  of  the  carrying  trade  of  other  European 
countries  and  of  the  United  States ;    in  fact  most  of  the 


Undvruood  ct  Liidfr uuod 


A  British  battleship. 


42  THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

world's  oceanic  merchandise  is.  carried  under  the  British 
flag.  Now  let  us  inquire  into  the  natural  causes  that 
have  made  possible  England's  enviable  leadership  in  com- 
merce. 

Great  Britain,  an  Island.  —  In  the  first  place,  Great 
Britain  is  an  island.  It  is  composed  of  England,  Scotland, 
and  Wales,  but  the  greatest  of  these  is  England,  which  is 
known  as  the  mother  country  of  the  British  Empire. 
Originally  the  three  countries  in  Great  Britain  were  inde- 
pendent of  one  another.  England  was.  then  also  knowu- 
as  Britannia.  When  Scotland  was  annexed,  the  name 
became  Great  Britain.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  together 
are  spoken  of  as  the  United  Kingdom.  These  two  with 
all  the  surrounding  islands  make  up  the  British  Isles. 

Influence  of  the  Sea.  —  It  is  perfectly  natural  for 
islanders  to  be  allured  to  the  ocean.  The  English  cannot 
resist  the  call  of  the  sea.  For  centuries  they  have  been 
good  sailors.  When  they  return  home,  they  tell  inter- 
esting stories  of  their  adventures,  as  they  sit  around  the 
fireplace  or  gather  in  the  clubhouses.  Such  tales  inspire 
the  young  men  and  boys  with  a  desire  to  serve  England  on 
the  ocean. 

Near  Europe.  —  The  ocean  environment,  valuable  as 
it  is  for  England,  is  no  more  important  than  the  nearness 
of  the  land.  A  steamer  trip  of  an  hour  and  three  quarters 
carries  one  across  the  English  Channel  from  Dover,  Eng- 
land, to  Calais,  France.  Several  of  the  most  civilized 
nations  are  only  a  short  distance  away.  Many  steamship 
lines  connect  Great  Britain  with  Holland,  France,  Bel- 
gium, and  Germany.  The  plains  of  Europe,  with  their  busy 
rivers,  the  Seine,  the  Rhine,  the  Weser,  and  the  Elbe,  face 
the  island. 


ENGLAND,    THE    FOREMOST    COMMERCIAL    POWER      43 

In  the  Center  of  the  World.  —  Before  1492,  Great  Brit- 
ain was  on  the  edge  of  the  known  world.  Since  the  six- 
teenth century  it  has  been  in  the  center.  The  New  World, 
with  its  marvelous  natural  wealth,  helped  to  make  Eng- 
land commercially  important. 

Good  Natural  Harbors.  —  Great  Britain  is  unusually 
fortunate  in  the  irregularity  of  its/t)ast.  The  mouths  of 
many  of  the  rivers  are  deep  estuaries  which  form  good 


Docks  at  Liverpool. 


harbors.  Englishmen  have  made  use  of  nature's  gifts 
by  building  large  cities  there,  including  London,  Ports- 
mouth, Hull,  Bristol,  Glasgow,  and  Liverpool.  Due  to 
the  warm  westerly  winds  and  the  northeast  flow  of  the 
warm  surface  water  of  the  Atlantic  in  the  same  latitude, 
English  harbors  are  ice  free  the  year  round.  Small  wonder 
that,  with  such  natural  advantages,  English  ports  rank 
among  the  largest  commercial  centers  in  the  world. 


44  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

High  Tides.  —  At  high  tide  the  estuaries  of  the  rivers 
become  arms  of  the  sea  on  which  the  largest  ships  may  sail ; 
but  while  the  tides  help  to  make  excellent  harbors,  they  are 
not  an  unmLxed  blessing.  In  London  there  is  a  difference 
of  eighteen  feet  between  high  tide  and  low  tide.  At  Liver- 
pool  the  flood  tide  rises  twenty-four  feet  above  the  ebb ; 
in  the  Severn  River,  forty  feet.  Thus  a  serious  problem  is 
presented  to  the  builders  of  the  piers  and  wharves.  A 
landing  place  suitable  when  the  tide  is  low  would  be  entirely 
submerged  when  the  water  reached  its  high  mark.  To 
overcome  this  difficulty  floating  landing  stages  are  built, 
the  piers  rising  or  falling  with  the  water.  At  Liverpool 
and  other  points  magnificent  stone  piers  surrounding 
great  pools  wall  the  banks  of  the  river.  Ships  enter  these 
pools  of  water  through  water  gates.  The  docks  cost  large 
sums  of  money ;  but  England  has  spared  neither  money 
nor  labor  in  improving  her  harbors. 

Storms  and  Fogs.  —  There  are  many  sea  stqrrns^  „espe- 
cially  in  the  English  Channel.  Storms  have  damaged  thou- 
sands of  ships  off  the  EngHsh  coast.  Even_  more_danger- 
ous  than  the  storms  are  the  fogs  which  hang  so  heavily 
over  and  around  England.  Along  the  coasts  are  many 
cliffs  and  sand  banks  against  which  ships  can  easily  be 
dashed  to  pieces  when  they  are  enveloped  in  fogs,  for  the 
lighthouses,  of  which  England  has  over  three  hundred,  are 
invisible  in  the  dense  fogs. 

It  is  well  known  that  London  sometimes  has  such  heavy 
fogs  that  the  streets  have  to  be  lighted  in  daytime,  and  even 
then  persons  become  lost  near  their  own  homes.  Imagine 
the  fear  of  the  people  on  the  many  ships  that  crowd  the 
harbor.  It  requires  great  care  to  keep  the  vessels  from 
crashing  into  one  another. 


ENGLAND,   THE    FOREMOST   COMMERCIAL   POWER      45 


Shiploading    Conveniences    in    English    Harbors.  —  At 

the    great    seaports    are    large    piers    of    stone    inclosing 

half  a  hundred  acres  of  water  each,  and  docks  where  the 

largest  ocean  greyhounds  with  a  tonnage  of  fifty  and  sixty 

thousand     tons     may 

load  and  unload  their 

enormous      cargoes. 

Mighty    cranes    with 

their    revolving    arms 

and     pulleys,     lifting 

fifty  tons  at   a   time, 

swing  back  and  forth 

between  the  ship  and 

the  piers,  carrying 

sacks,     bales,     boxes, 

kegs,  barrels,  and  hogs- 

heads.       Oils      are 

pumped  from  oil  tank 

steamers     to     harbor 

tanks    or    vice    versa. 

Grain     is    transferred 

not    in    sacks    but    in 

bulk,    by    machinery 

with  an  endless  bucket 

chain  such  as  is  used 

in  transferring  wheat 

from  a  car  to  elevator  bins.     Powerful  hoists  load  a  ship 

with  coal  at  the  rate  of  seven  hundred  tons  an  hour.     At 

the  Immingham  Dock  near  Grimsby  5,000,000  tons  of  coal 

can  be  handled  per  day.     The  rapidity  with  which  the  work 

is  done  is  amazing.     Gigantic  granaries  and  warehouses, 

crowded  around  the  wharves,  hold  the  cargoes  until  they 


Eddystone  lighthouse. 


46 


THREE  INDUSTRI.\L   NATIONS 


can  be  sent  out  to  their  destinations.  No  sooner  is  a  ship 
emptied  than  the  reloading  begins,  for  shipowners  do  not 
Hke  to  have  a  ship  waste  time  in  the  harbor.  The  more 
trips  it  makes  the  greater  will  be  the  financial  returns. 

Shipbuilding  Materials.  —  To  construct  and  maintain 
such  a  large  merchant  fleet  requires  an  enormous  amount 
of  coal  and  iron.  Fortunately  England  is  bountifully 
supplied  with  both.     For  more  than  a  hundred  years  Great 


^-=^-  X 


A  British  shipyard. 

Britain  stood  at  the  head  of  all  nations  in  their  produc- 
tion. But  recently  Germany  and  the  United  States  have 
been  outstripping  her.  In  1910  she  ranked  next  to  the 
United  States  in  coal  production;  and  third  in  iron,  being 
excelled  only  by  our  country  and  Germany.  It  is  fortu- 
nate for  Great  Britain  that  wooden  ships  are  disappearing, 
for  her  forests  are  not  large,  covering  less  than  5  per  cent 
of  the  total  area.  In  this  respect  she  is  far  behind  Ger- 
many and  the  United  States.  The  factories,  the  ships, 
and  the  export  trade  have  consumed  so  much  coal  in  the 
last  three  centuries  that  the  English  fear  the  exhaustion  of 


ENGLAND,   THE   FOREMOST   COMMERCIAL   POWER      47 

their  mines  within  the  next  one  or  two  centuries.  But  for 
the  present  they  have  quite  enough  iron  to  maintain  the 
largest  commercial  fleet  on  earth,  and  sufficient  coal  to  steam 
their  ships  over  the  boundless  seas.  Her  three  greatest 
shipbuilding  centers  are  well  scattered  over  the  United 
Kingdom.  They  are  Glasgow  on  the  Clyde  River  in  Scot- 
land, Newcastle  on  the  Tyne  in  England,  and  Belfast  in 
Ireland.  By  nature  Great  Britain  is  well  equipped  to  lead 
in  commerce. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  Sir  Francis  Drake  and  other 
English  explorers. 

2.  Locate  on  the  map  the  two  islands  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
North  Sea,  English  Channel,  France,  Belgium,  Netherlands, 
Denmark,  Germany,  the  Rhine,  Seine,  Elbe,  Spain,  and  Cadiz. 

3.  Make  a  collection  of  pictures  of  ships. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  difficulties  that  must  be  solved  by 
engineers  in  building  a  tunnel  under  the  English  Channel  ? 

5.  Describe  some  of  the  work  required  in  improving  a  harbor. 

6.  Why  do  British  vessels  carry  so  much  of  the  merchandise 
of  the  United  States? 


CHAPTER   VI 
ENGLAND,   A   LEADER   IN   THE   WORLD'S   INDUSTRY 

Need  of  a  Large  Merchant  Marine.  —  The  United  King- 
dom is  very  small,  compared  with  many  other  countries,  and 
the  population  is  very  dense.  In  England,  the  most  impor- 
tant country  of  the  Kingdom,  there  are  more  than  500  people 
to  the  square  mile,  while  the  United  States  averages  but 
about  31  to  the  square  mile.  Great  Britain  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  gigantic  workshop  with  millions  of  workers. 
Raw  materials  for  the  factories  are  brought  on  ships  from 
all  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  manufactured  products  are 
shipped  from  England  to  all  other  countries.  This  trans- 
portation of  raw  materials  and  finished  articles  requires  a 
very  large  number  of  merchant  ships.  About  three  fourths 
of  the  people  are  engaged  in  manufacturing  and  commerce, 
while  only  a  little  more  than  one  tenth  are  engaged  in 
farming.  Therefore  the  farms  can  supply  only  a  small  part 
of  the  food  required  by  the  total  population ;  and  so  enor- 
mous quantities  of  food  products  must  be  carried  in  ships 
to  this  country.  Merely  to  serve  her  domestic  needs,  Eng- 
land needs  more  ships  than  any  other  country.  In  addi- 
tion most  of  the  commerce  between  the  several  colonies  of 
the  British  Empire,  as  well  as  much  of  the  trade  between 
foreign  nations,  is  carried  in  British  ships. 

Agriculture.  —  In  the  British  Isles  farming  is  carried 
on  with  great  care  and  skill.  Every  acre  of  farm  land  is 
cultivated  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  the  highest  possible 

48 


ENGLAND,    A  LEADER   IN   THE   WORLD'S   INDUSTRY     49 

yield  of  grain,  root  crops,  or  grass  and  hay.     Only  17  per 
cent  of  the  total  surface  is  non-agricultural  land.     In  the 


An  English  farm  scene. 

mountainous  sections  of  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  there 
are  extensive  areas  of  grazing  lands  on  which  large  numbers 
of  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised.  The  leading  crops  are  wheat, 
oats,  barley,  hay,  potatoes,  and  turnips.  Nearly  all  the 
wheat  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  raised  in  England.  The 
English  farmer  has  an  enviable  record  as  a  producer  of  this 
grain.  England  yields  32.4  bushels  per  acre;  Germany, 
30.8;  France,  19.0;  Austria-Hungary,  18.4;  United  States, 
14.3;  Russia,  9.2.  Oats,  hay,  and  potatoes  are  the  chief 
crops  of  Ireland  and  Scotland.  Ireland  also  produces  great 
quantities  of  flax.  Truck  gardening  is  carried  on  exten- 
sively in  the  densely  settled  sections. 

Although  the  British  Isles  are  in  latitudes  that  are  quite 
cold  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  yet  the  warm  westerly 
winds  from  the  Atlantic  give  these  islands  a  mild  climate. 


50 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


The  frequent  rains  brought  by  these  winds  cause  an  abun- 
dant growth  of  grass  and  hay.  The  summers  are  too 
short  and  too  cool  and  cloud}^  for  corn  and  cotton  to  grow ; 
in  the  northern  portions,  only  hardy  crops,  like  oats  and 
potatoes,  can  be  successfully  grown.  Although  the  sunimers 
are  short,  yet  the  long  days  partly  compensate  for  the  short 
growing  season. 

Because  of  the  extensive  grazing  lands,  large  numbers  of 


ENGLAxND,   A  LEADER   IN   THE   WORLD'S   INDUSTRY      5 1 

live  stock  are  raised.  The  British  Isles  are  noted  for  th^ 
fine  breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  that  have  been  devel- 
oped there.  In  the  number  of  cattle  per  square  mile,  Ire- 
land surpasses  the  other  countries  of  the  United  King- 
dom ;  while  in  the  number  of  sheep  per  square  mile,  Wales 
is  far  ahead.  Although  many  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs  are 
raised,  the  supply  of  meat  is  not  equal  to  the  demand ; 
therefore,  heav}'  imports  of  this  product  are  necessary. 

History  of  English  Agriculture. —  In  the  early  days  of 
England  agriculture  was  the  chief  occupation ;  but  it  was 
carried  on  in  a  way  quite  different  from  present  methods. 
The  farmers  lived  in  villages  surrounded  by  three  kinds  of 
land,  (i)  woodland,  the  common  source  of  fuel  for  all  the 
villagers,  (2)  meadows  for  pastures,  and  (3)  arable  land  for 
farming.  The  tillable  land  was  divided  into  small  strips 
separated  by  narrow  ribbons  of  unplowed  land.  Each 
farmer  was  assigned  several  strips  lying  in  different  sections 
so  that  all  might  receive  equal  shares  of  rich  and  poor  soil. 
At  first  the  same  crops  were  raised  year  after  year  in  the 
same  fields.  After  a  time  the  people  learned  that  this 
wore  out  the  soil  very  fast.  Then  the  three  field  system 
was  adopted.  One  year  wheat  or  rye  was  raised  on  a  given 
strip,  the  second  year  barley,  oats;  or  peas  were  produced, 
and  the  third  year  the  land  lay  fallow.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  farm  practice  known  as  rotation  of  crops. 

During  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  the  English 
farmers  gave  most  of  their  attention  to  sheep  raising  in- 
stead of  raising  crops.  At  this  time  European  countries 
across  the  Channel  were  rapidly  developing  the  manufac- 
turing of  woolen  goods,  and  there  was  a  great  demand  for 
wool.  The  raising  of  sheep  led  to  the  inclosing  of  the  fields 
and  caused  a  great  reduction  in  the  number  of  farmers,  for 


52  THREE   INDUSTRL\L   NATIONS 

this  industry  does  not  require  nearly  so  many  laborers  as 
the  growing  of  crops.  So  many  farms  were  converted  into 
sheep  pastures  that  thousands  of  people  were  thrown  out 
of  employment.  Many  of  them  turned  to  the  making  of 
woolen  cloth  in  their  homes  as  a  means  of  earning  a 
living.  During  this  time  England  produced  so  little  grain 
that  she  had  to  import  foodstuffs  from  other  countries. 

About  the  first  of  the  seventeenth  century  England  be- 
gan to  give  less  attention  to  sheep  raising  and  more  to  the 
production  of  crops.  In  the  middle  of  that  century  great 
improvements  in  agricultural  methods  became  general. 
Marshes  were  drained  and  forests  cleared  in  order  to  make 
more  farming  land,  better  methods  of  cultivation  came  into 
use,  and  new  crops,  such  as  turnips  and  clover,  were  in- 
troduced. Clover  which  enriches  the  soil  for  succeed- 
ing crops  was  used  as  a  rotation  crop.  Instead  of  letting 
the  land  lie  fallow  for  one  year,  clover  was  raised  to  in- 
crease fertility,  and  to  supply  feed  for  the  farm  animals. 
Through  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  methods 
of  farming  gradually  improved  until  the  scientific  agri- 
culture of  the  present  day  was  reached. 

Fisheries.  —  The  shallow  waters  around  the  British  Isles 
are  among  the  best  fishing  grounds  in  the  world.  Here 
bilhons  of  cod,  mackerel,  haddock,  and  herring  feed  and 
spawn.  Over  100,000  men  secure  annually  from  the  sea 
more  than  1,000,000  tons  of  fish  valued  at  more  than 
$54,000,000,  a  daily  average  of  $150,000.  The  United 
Kingdom  is  the  second  greatest  fishing  country,  being  sur- 
passed only  by  the  United  States.  Fish  is  cheaper  than 
meat  because  fishing  grounds  do  not  have  to  be  bought, 
cannot  be  taxed,  and  require  no  cultivation.  Every 
British  coast  town  carries  on  fishing ;  but  the  most  impor- 


ENGLAND,    A  LEADER   IN  THE   WORLD'S   INDUSTRY      53 

tant  ports  are  Plymouth  on  the  south ;  Yarmouth,  Grimsby, 
Harwich,  and  Hull  on  the  east;  and  Aberdeen  in  Scot- 
land. Grimsby  is  said  to  be  the  greatest  fishing  port  in 
the  world.  The  fisheries  contribute  to  England's  ocean 
supremacy  in  two  ways.  The  surplus  product  forms  an 
important  export,  and  fishing  vessels  are  training  schools 
for  sailors  who  may  later  enter  the  merchant  service. 

Mineral  Wealth.  —  Great  Britain  is  one  of  the  three 
most  important  coal  and  iron  countries  in  the  world.  These 
minerals  above  all  other  resources  have  given  her  the  posi- 
tion of  leader  among  nations.  Fortunately  the  coal  and 
iron  which  are  so  necessary  to  each  other,  are  found  near  to- 
gether and  not  far  from  the  sea,  mostly  in  southern  Scot- 
land, northern  England,  and  Wales.  Ireland  is  not  rich 
in  these  products. 
y^y  Iron.  —  While  iron  is  abundant,  so  much  has  been  used  in 
the  past,  and  the  steel  age  is  making  such  constantly  increas- 
ing demands  upon  this  metal,  that  the  output  is  not  suf- 
ficient to  meet  the  demands  of  the  factories.  The  country 
is  compelled  to  import  iron  from  Italy,  Spain,  and  Sweden. 

Coal.  —  Great  Britain's  chief  coal  deposits  greatly  exceed 
in  value  those  of  any  other  country  in  Europe. 

Some  of  the  coal  is  used  for  fuel ;  about  a  third  of  it  is 
exported ;  but  most  of  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth, 
the  smelting  of  iron,  and  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel 
products.  For  several  reasons  the  British  do  not  use  nearly 
so  much  coal  for  fuel  per  capita  as  we  do  in  our  country. 
One  reason  is  the  mildness  of  winter.  Another  is  that  the 
English  have  trained  themselves  to  feel  comfortable  at 
60°  or  65°  Fahrenheit  while  we  require  68°  or  70°. 

Coal  and  iron  have  had  a  great  influence  on  the  distri- 
bution of  population  in  England.     Long  ago  when  agri- 


54 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


culture,  the  chief  occupation,  was  carried  on  in  the  south- 
ern part,  most  of  the  population  lived  there.  Few  people 
lived  on  the  moors  and  among  the  hills  of  the  north,  until 


Blast  furnaces. 


Pouring  molten  steel  into  a  ladle. 


the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  After  coal  came 
into  general  use,  manufacturing  cities  suddenly  sprang 
up  and  the  smokestacks  of  factories  poured  forth  great 
black  clouds  over  the  once  peaceful  moorlands. 

Manufacturing  in  Great  Britain.  —  The  extensive  man- 
ufacturing of  this  country  is  due  largely  to  the  abundance 
of  coal  and  iron,  which  are  the  two  great  natural  resources 
upon  which  modern  factories  largely  depend.  However, 
the  marvelous  industrial  prosperity  of  Great  Britain  is 
due  not  merely  to  nature's  gift,  but  also  in  a  large  measure 
to  the  energy  and  intelligence  of  its  people.     The  stamp  of 


ENGLAND,   A  LEADER  LN   THE  WORLD'S   INDUSTRY      55 


the  British  craftsman  is  a  guarantee  of  excellence  and 
honesty.  In  skilled  labor  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  take  first  honors.  British  manufactures  cover  a 
wide  range  of  products,  but  the  two  most  important  are 
cloth,  and  iron  and  steel  goods. 

Textile  Manufactures.  —  The  making  of  cloth  —  cotton, 
woolens,  and  linens  —  is  the  most  important  branch  of 
manufacturing.  No  other  country  surpasses  England  in 
the  textile  industry.  English  woolen  cloth,  especially  used 
in  men's  and  women's  tailor-made  suits,  is  renowned  for 
its  quality  the  world  over.  You  have  heard  of  tweeds, 
cheviots,  and  Scotch  plaids?  Most  of  the  cloth  centers 
are  in  the  coal  sections,  between  Liverpool  and  Glasgow. 
Leeds  is  noted  for  its  woolen  cloth,  Leicester  for  its  woolen 
hosiery,  and  Manchester  is  the  greatest  cotton-manufactur- 
ing center  in  the  world.  Belfast,  Ireland,  is  an  important 
center  of  linen  manufacture. 

Notable  Inventions  in  England.  —  In  the  second  half 
of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury a  number  of  in- 
ventions were  made 
that  caused  marvel- 
ous changes  in  the 
textile  industries. 
The  invention  of  the 
flying  shuttle  in  1753 
made  the  hand  looms 
work  so  fast  that  the 
spinners  could  not 
meet  the  demands 
for  thread.  This  was 
soon      followed     by 


An  early  loom. 


56  THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

three  improvements  on  the  spinning  machine.  Arkwright 
invented  the  water  frame  in  1769  which  enabled  men  to  spin 
a  stronger  cotton  thread.  In  1770  Hargreaves  brought 
out  the  spinning  jenny  which  added  to  the  rapidity  of  the 
work.  In  1779  Crompton  invented  the  "  mule  "  which 
enabled  men  to  manufacture  fine  muslin  threads  faster 
than  ever.  Then  the  spinners  more  than  kept  the  weavers 
busy.  In  1769  Watt  invented  the  steam  engine  and  in 
1785  the  power  loom  was  substituted  for  the  hand  loom. 
These  inventions  were  soon  applied  to  the  woolen  and 
linen  industries.  Improvements  were  made  also  in  spin- 
ning flax  and  combing  wool,  in  dyeing  and  bleaching  cloths, 
and  in  lace  making  and  calico  printing. 

A  Typical  Manchester  Factory  Scene.  —  Manchester 
is  world  renowned  for  its  many  cotton  mills,  where  spin- 
ning and  weaving  are  carried  on  in  huge  factories  many 
stories  high.  As  the  morning  bell  announces  the  opening 
hour  of  the  day's  work,  throngs  of  men,  women,  boys,  and 
girls  move  along  the  streets  toward  the  mills.  Some  turn 
in  at  the  warehouses ;  most  of  the  men  enter  the  tall  spin- 
ning factories,  while  the  women  find  their  work  in  the 
low  weaving  sheds.  In  a  few  moments  the  operatives  have 
removed  their  wraps  and  taken  their  stations  at  their 
various  posts.  The  spinners  watch  their  ''  mules  "  and 
frames ;  the  weavers  busy  themselves  with  their  looms. 
The  rooms  are  filled  with  many  driving  wheels.  On  the 
stroke  of  the  hour  the  machinery  is  set  in  motion.  The 
leather  bands  fly  on  their  endless  journeys ;  frames  move 
back  and  forth ;  cylinders  revolve ;  spindles  turn  round 
and  round ;  shuttles  fly  from  side  to  side ;  looms  work  up 
and  down.  All  this  motion  keeps  spinners  and  weavers 
alert  until  the  dinner  time.     Then  the  milt  is  deserted,  and 


I 


ENGLAND,   A  LEADER   IN   THE  WORLD'S   INDUSTRY      57 

the  street  is  again  thronged  with  a  lively,  chattering  crowd. 
After  dinner  the  work  is  resumed  until  six  o'clock,  when  the 
weary  laborers  leave  the  day's  toil  for  the  welcome,  cheer, 
and  rest  of  home. 

Source  of  Raw  Products.  —  Raw  cotton  is  imported 
from  India,  Egypt,  and  the  United  States.  Much  of  the 
flax  for  linen  goods  is  grown  in  Ireland.  The  sheep  pas- 
tures in  far-away  Austraha  and  New  Zealand  furnish  most 
of  the  raw  wool ;  Great  Britain  furnishes  the  coal  for  power 
and  most  of  the  iron  for  the  machinery  of  the  textile 
mills. 

Iron  and  Steel.  —  The  making  of  iron  and  steel  goods 
is  the  second  greatest  manufacturing  industry  in  Great 
Britain.  Only  the  United  States  excels  England  in  this 
line  of  goods.  The  small  island  has  at  least  thirty  large 
manufacturing  centers;  among  them  London,  the  largest 
city  in  the  world.  As  far  back  as  the  sixteenth  century 
Birmingham  has  been  making  iron  goods  and  metal  wares, 
—  knives,  scissors,  screws,  skates  ;  locks  and  steel  springs  ; 
pins  and  pens ;  needles  and  nails ;  thimbles,  buttons,  and 
watch  chains;  cannon,  steam  engines,  and  machinery  of , 
all  kinds.     The  world's  best  cutlery  is  made  in  Sheffield. 

England's  Leading  Customers.  —  Textiles  (cotton,  linen, 
woolen,  and  other  cloths)  make  up  two  fifths  of  the  exports 
from  Great  Britain  and  Ireland ;  iron  and  steel  manufac- 
tures make  a  fifth  of  it.  The  total  export  trade  in  191 2 
was  about  $2,450,000,000.  A  large  part  of  her  trade  is 
carried  on  with  her  colonies,  with  whom  she  keeps  in  close 
touch.  Her  principal  foreign  buyers  are  Germany,  United 
States,  France,  Russia,  Argentina,  Belgium,  and  Nether- 
lands. The  annual  per  capita  exports  amount  to  $50,  the 
imports  to  $60. 


58 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


An  early  English  locomotive. 


British  Railways.  —  In  1825  George  Stephenson  in- 
vented the  locomotive  engine,  to  which  he  gave  the  signifi- 
cant name  "  The  Rocket."  His  invention  led  to  the 
building  of  the  first  railroad  in  1830.  This  was  the  begin- 
ning of  railroads  in  the 
1  world ;  and  through 
them  England  not  only 
j94  increased  her  wealth 
^Hc  immensely  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  but 
she  gained  a  long  start 
in  advance  of  European 
nations  in  manufactur- 
ing and  trade.  Only 
recently  have  Ger- 
many and  the  United 
States  caught  up  with  her  along  these  lines.  Mr.  Stephen- 
son once  said  :  "  England  made  the  railways,  and  in  return 
the  railways  made  England."  He  was  right,  for  the  com- 
merce of  the  United  Kingdom  has  been  greatly  promoted 
by  the  admirable  system  of  more  than  23,000  miles  of 
railways  reaching  from  every  part  of  the  interior  to  the 
seaports.  England  and  Wales  have  the  densest  network 
of  railways  in  the  world.  Every  part  of  the  island  is  within 
twelve  hours  of  London  by  rail.  Freight  rates  are  higher 
than  in  the  United  States,  but  the  railway  beds  and  tracks 
are  said  to  be  the  best  in  the  world. 

Rivers  and  Canals.  —  The  many  navigable  rivers,  with 
long,  deep  estuaries,  reaching  from  the  coast  well  into  the 
heart  of  England,  have  greatly  fostered  commerce.  Ninety- 
five  per  cent  of  the  Thames,  for  example,  is  navigable. 
The  usual  British  ingenuity  has  connected  the  streams  by 


ENGLAND,   A  LEADER   IN   THE   WORLDS   INDUSTRY     59 

means  of  canals,  so  that  there  is  almost  a  perfect  network 
of  waterways  as  well  as  of  railways.  The  first  canal  was 
built  in  1 76 1  by  the  private  funds  of  the  Duke  of  Bridge- 
water.  Since  then  about  2 ,000  miles  of  public  canals  have 
aided  commerce  by  affording  complete  internal  water 
communications  from  coast  to  coast.  The  English  have 
also  made  the  rivers  over  again.  Take  the  Tyne  for  ex- 
ample. Its  bed  has  been  deepened ;  its  channel  altered. 
Thousands  of  tons  of  earth  have  been  removed  from  its 
bed  so  that  large  ships  may  float  their  heavy  cargoes  to 
Newcastle.  The  mightiest  machinery  in  the  world  hoisted 
51  million  tons  of  dirt  from  the  river,  which  was  carried 


An  English  railway  train. 


out  three  miles  to  sea.  A  dangerous  promontory  seventy- 
five  feet  high,  obstructing  navigation,  was  cut  away. 
Docks  were  enlarged  and  thousands  of  feet  of  dry  quays 
were  built. 


6o 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


The  Manchester  Ship  Canal.  —  For  a  long  time,  great 
unnecessary  expense  was  added  to  the  cotton  manufacture 
of  Manchester  because  the  raw  product  which  landed  at 
Liverpool  had  to  be  reloaded  there  on  trains  for  Man- 
chester. Recently  a  ship  canal  thirty-five  miles  long  and 
twenty-eight  feet  deep  has  been  built  between  Manchester 
and  the  sea.  This  enables  ocean  ships  to  steam  up  to  their 
docks,  load  and  unload  there,  thus  making  Manchester  a 
seaport,  independent  of  Liverpool.  This  canal  is  one  of 
the  most  wonderful  conquests  of  man  over  nature. 


Locks  on  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal. 


Country  Roads. —  Until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  very  little  attention  was  given  to  road-making  in 
England,  and  the  roads  were  poor.  About  that  time 
Macadam  and  other  engineers  worked  out  many  problems 
of  road  construction.    Private  companies  and  public  author- 


ENGLAND,    A   LEADER   IN   THE  WORLD'S   INDUSTRY     6 1 

ities  used  the  ideas  of  these  men,  and  before  the  close  of 
the  century  macadam  roads  extended  over  all  parts  of  Great 
Britain.  These  highways  of  stone  form  the  trade  arteries  be- 
tween railroad  centers  and  rural  districts.  The  excellent 
roads  bordered  by  beautiful  hedges  furnish  one  of  the  chief 
delights  of  travel  in  the  rural  sections  of  England. 

The  Ocean,  the  Only  Means  of  International  Trade.  — 
In  spite  of  her  close  network  of  railways  and  canals,  Eng- 
land's only  means  of  trading  with  other  nations  is  by  way 
of  the  oceans.  The  United  States  can  send  things  by  rail 
to  Canada  or  Mexico.  But  not  one  country  touches  Eng- 
land. She  stands  alone  in  the  midst  of  the  waters.  Every 
egg,  every  ounce  of  meat,  every  pound  of  sugar,  every  sack 
of  flour,  every  apple  that  enters  England  from  foreign 
lands  has  had  a  sea  journey.  Every  yard  of  cloth,  every 
garment,  every  pen,  every  pin  that  is  sold  to  foreigners 
must  be  shipped  across  salt  waters.  No  wonder,  then, 
that  Great  Britain  requires  a  large  merchant  marine. 

Industrial  Centers.  —  The  manufacturing  and  commer- 
cial activities  of  Great  Britain  have  caused  the  growth  of 
many  large  cities  within  a  small  territory.  It  would  require 
a  large  book  to  tell  about  all  of  them.  We  shall  study  only 
four. 

London.  —  The  capital,  London,  is  the  largest  city  in 
the  world.  It  is  the  foremost  banking  center  of  the  world, 
and  one  of  its  chief  commercial  ports.  Including  all  its 
suburbs,  it  contains  one  fourth  of  the  population  of  Eng- 
land. All  roads  in  the  entire  Empire  seem  to  lead  to 
London.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Thames  is  not  deep 
enough  for  the  largest  steamers,  which  dock  twenty  miles 
below  the  city,  London  was  for  a  long  time  the  world's 
greatest  seaport.     The  early  growth  was  due  to  the  fact 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


A  view  of  the  wharves  at  London. 


that  the  Thames  River  lies  opposite  some  of  the  busiest 
rivers  of  Europe  and  the  most  highly  developed  countries. 
This  made  the  city  the  collecting  center  of  English  exports 
and  the  distributing  center  of  European  and  Asiatic  imports. 
It  handles  more  wool,  tea,  and  wine  than  any  other  city 
and  is  one  of  the  leading  fur  centers.  Its  colonial  commerce 
is  very  heavy,  especially  with  India.  It  was  to  further 
trade  with  that  country  that  the  Suez  Canal  was  built. 
London's  relative  commercial  rank  is  not  so  high  as  it  once 
was.  Large  continental  ports,  like  New  York  and  Ham- 
burg, excel  it  in  the  quantity  of  goods  handled  ;  but  no  other 
city  requires  for  its  personal  use  such  large  imports  as 
London. 

London  has  a  population  of  over  7,000,000.     It  has  in- 
habitants from  all  parts  of  the  globe, — Frenchmen,  Russians, 


ENGLAND,    A  LEADER   IN   THE  WORLD'S   INDUSTRY     63 

Germans,  Italians,  Americans,  and  many  others, — enough 
of  each  to  make  a  city.  It  is  the  busiest  of  busy  cities. 
At  all  times  great  throngs  of  people  crowd  its  chief  busi- 
ness streets.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  persons  from 
the  suburbs  enter  the  heart  of  the  city  each  morning  to  earn 
a  living  in  thousands  of  stores,  factories,  mills,  and  ware- 
houses. The  chief  London  streets  and  bridges  are  always 
crowded,  as  if  a  fair,  or  a  parade,  were  going  on.  The 
people  come  on  foot,  and  in  omnibuses,  electric  cars,  and 
underground  railroads. 

If  you  could  look  down  from  an  airship  upon  London, 
you  would  be  bewildered  by  the  innumerable  dwellings, 
the  thousands  of  factories  and  warehouses,  and  the  hun- 
dreds of  ships  in  its  harbors.  At  the  London  wharves, 
where  there  are  miles  and  miles  of  landing  places,  many 
men  are  busy  every  day  unloading  cattle  and  sheep  by  the 


Hyde  Park,  London. 


64  THREE   INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

thousands.  The  former  come  from  Holland ;  the  latter, 
from  Australia.  Shiploads  of  frozen  beef  are  received 
from  Argentina  and  Australia ;  many  hundredweight  of 
butter  from  Denmark ;  millions  of  poultry  and  eggs  from 
France.  Hundreds  of  barrels  of  apples  arrive  from  Canada, 
and  thousands  of  bales  of  cotton  are  received  from  the  United 
States,  India,  and  Egypt.  Many  fishing  vessels  bring  in 
more  than  a  million  pounds  of  fish  daily.  Hundreds  of 
casks  of  French  and  Italian  wine  are  brought  into  London. 
Germany,  France,  Switzerland,  and  the  United  States  ship 
to  it  great  quantities  of  manufactured  articles.  Swedish 
timber  and  iron,  Brazihan  coffee  and  rubber  are  landed 
on  London  wharves.  Arctic  furs ;  tropical  spices  and  fruits ; 
grains,  meat,  and  fruits  of  the  temperate  zone  are  un- 
loaded in  rapid  succession.  In  short  it  takes  all  the  world 
to  feed,  clothe,  and  shelter  its  largest  city. 

As  soon  as  the  ships  are  cleared  of  their  cargoes,  they 
are  loaded  with  cloth,  coal,  machinery,  cutlery,  and  imple- 
ments, which  go  to  all  parts  of  the  globe. 

Liverpool.  —  Liverpool,  on  the  Irish  Sea,  receives  most 
of  the  American  trade.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  the  White 
Star  and  Cunard  steamship  lines.  Liverpool  is  unrivaled 
as  a  distributing  center.  Near  by,  the  large  manufactur- 
ing centers  of  northern  and  middle  England,  the  mining 
districts  of  Wales,  and  the  Irish  lowlands  across  the 
Irish  Sea,  look  to  Liverpool  for  food,  clothing,  and  raw 
products. 

Alrnost  a  third  of  the  total  trade  of  the  country  enters 
and  leaves  this  port  —  exceeding  4,000,000  tons  a  year. 
New  steamships  are  constantly  being  built  for  service 
between  Liverpool  and  the  other  leadings  ports  of  the 
world.     In  19 14  the  Cunard  line  added  the  Aquitania  to 


ENGLAND,   A   LEADER   IN   THE   WORLD'S   INDUSTRY      65 

its  number  of  magniiicent  ships  sailing  between  New  York 
and  Liverpool.  The  tides  that  enter  the  Mersey  River  iill 
the  harbor  of  Liverpool  with  sand  and  debris.  To  prevent 
this  a  wall  1300  feet  long  in  the  sea  channel  was  finished 
November,  19 10.  It  is  hoped  that  this  237,000  tons  of  stone 
wall  will  secure  for  the  harbor  a  deep-water  entrance  with 
no  danger  of  future  obstruction.  This  entrance  is  large 
enough  for  the  largest  ships  now  existing,  or  contemplated. 

The  Gladstone  dock,  1020  feet  long,  accommodates  the 
giant  ships  now  in  existence  and  will  also  admit  the  1000- 
foot  vessels  of  60,000  tons  of  the  future. 

Liverpool  Imports.  —  From  4,000,000  to  9,000,000  sacks 
of  wheat  annually  have  been  imported  of  late  into  Liverpool 
from  the  United  States,  Russia,  India,  Australia,  and 
Argentina.  Ham  and  bacon  are  received  in  large  quanti- 
ties, principally  from  the  United  States,  Ireland,  and 
Denmark.  The  prices  of  American  meat  have  recently 
risen  so  high  that  England  is  reducing  her  purchases  from 
us.  Russia,  Servia,  and  China  have  received  the  English 
pork  trade  which  our  country  lost.  Liverpool  is  the  chief 
port  for  receiving  American  and  Canadian  apples.  Some- 
times a  single  shipment  contains  from  25,000  to  30,000 
barrels  of  the  fruit.  More  than  a  million  cases  of  canned 
salmon  found  their  way  from  our  Pacific  coast  into  Liver- 
pool during  1910;  but  American  butter  and  cheese  are  not 
wanted  on  account  of  the  high  prices.  As  a  result  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  New  Zealand,  Australia,  and  Canada  have 
the  lion's  share  of  this  trade. 

Liverpool  Exports.  —  A  large  part  of  the  exports  of  Liver- 
pool consists  of  woolen  goods,  made  largely  from  raw 
material  seot  by  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Argentina. 
The  export  and  import  trade  of  Liverpool,  enormous  as  it 


66  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

is,  would  be  still  greater  if  the  Ship  Canal  connecting  the 
Irish  Sea  with  Manchester  had  not  been  built. 

Manchester.  —  The  trade  relations  of  the  United  States 
with  Alanchester  are  as  good  as  with  Liverpool..  The  word 
"  Manchester  "  has  become  almost  a  synonym  for  cotton 
manufacturing,  and  our  country  produces  most  of  her  nec- 
essary raw  material.  But  while  this  is  her  leading  business, 
cotton  by  no  means  exhausts  her  industries.  Besides 
cotton  goods,  Manchester  exports  chemicals,  dyestufifs, 
hats,  handkerchiefs,  thread,  linens,  velvets,  steel  wire, 
glass,  china,  and  earthenware. 

Fruit  Sales.  —  Manchester  ranks  high  in  the  importa- 
tion of  fruits.  In  1910,  2,262,077  bunches  of  bananas  were 
imported  from  the  West  Indies.  Buyers  from  all  parts  of 
northern  and  middle  England  attend  the  pubUc  auction 
held  on  Tuesdays  and  Thursdays  in  the  fruit  salesrooms 
of  Manchester.  Here  two  and  a  half  million  dollars'  worth 
of  fruit  changes  owners  annually.  During  three  market 
days  at  Christmas  time,  1910,  there  were  sold  17,000  barrels 
and  boxes  of  apples  from  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
2150  boxes  of  Jaffa  oranges,  22,250  cases  of  Valencia  oranges, 
7030  packages  of  Sicily  grapes,  and  195  barrels  of  Almeria 
grapes. 

Display  and  Dispatching  of  Fruit.  —  The  moment  a  ship 
is  anchored  at  the  docks,  samples  of  its  fruits  are  sent  to 
the  fruit  salesroom.  There  they  are  displayed  to  prospec- 
tive buyers,  on  elevators  rising  from  the  cellars.  If  a  boat 
happens  to  land  on  a  sale  day  the  whole  cargo  may  be 
sold  in  one  or  two  hours.  No  sooner  are  sales  made  than 
forwarding  orders  are  put  into  the  hands  of  the  represent- 
atives of  the  canals  and  railroads.  Immediately  these 
orders  are  sent  to  the  docks.     Not  a  moment  is  lost.     Often 


ENGLAND,   A   LEADER    IN   THE   WORLD'S   INDUSTRY     67 

by  the  time  the  buyer  leaves  the  salesrooms,  his  purchases 
have  been  loaded  into  freight  cars  and  started  toward  their 
destination.  Time  is  the  great  factor  of  a  contract  in  the 
fruit  market.  The  Manchester  brokers,  with  the  coopera- 
tion of  the  ship  canal  and  railroad  companies,  manage  their 
transactions  with  the  greatest  possible  speed. 


Unloading  cattle,  Manchester  Ship  Canal. 


Port  Facilities.  —  The  long  Manchester  Ship  Canal 
offers  ample  space  to  manufacturers  for  the  erection  of 
works  along  a  waterway.  In  one  large  park  estate  of 
over  a  thousand  acres,  with  a  frontage  of  three  miles  on 
the  canal,  seventy-three  firms  have  already  secured  space 
for  carrying  on  production  and  trade  on  a  colossal  scale. 
The  attention  that  is  given  to  the  best  means  of  shipping 
each  particular  kind  of  goods  is  wonderful.  For  instance, 
molasses  is  imported  in  bulk.     When   the  cargo  arrives 


68  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

from  Cuba,  it  is  pumped  from  the  ship  into  large  dock  tanks 
and  thence  is  distributed  by  motor  tank  wagons.  Inflam- 
mable articles,  like  cotton,  yarn,  hemp,  oil,  are  handled 
with  the  utmost  care  to  reduce  the  fire  risk. 

Glasgow.  —  The  United  Kingdom  builds  more  ships 
than  any  other  country  on  earth.  Every  year  large 
steamers  are  launched  in  the  great  shipyards  of  Belfast, 
Newcastle,  and  Glasgow.  The  last-named  city  is  the  lead- 
ing shipbuilding  center  of  the  world.  It  is  in  the  south- 
western part  of  Scotland  on  the  Clyde  River,  whose  banks 
are  lined  with  mighty  ocean  steamers  in  all  stages  of  con- 
struction. The  noise  made  by  the  thousands  of  hammers 
striking  the  steel  almost  deafens  one.  Both  merchant 
vessels  and  powerful  warships  are  made  for  England,  and 
also  for  other  countries. 

Owing  to  an  abundant  supply  of  coal  near  by,  Glasgow 
is  a  leading  manufacturing  center.  The  finest  kinds  of 
cotton  goods  and  a  great  variety  of  heavy  machinery  are 
made. 

Conclusion.  —  England  began  her  industrial  career  as  an 
agricultural  nation.  By  and  by  she  realized  that  there 
was  great  profit  in  manufacturing.  The  most  important 
industries  of  England  are  the  weaving  of  cotton  and  woolen 
goods  and  the  making  of  iron  and  steel  products.  The 
importance  of  the  textile  industry  is  due  largely  to  the 
early  start  given  to  it  by  the  invention  of  improved  looms 
and  the  machinery  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth. 
Rich  mines  of  coal  and  iron  near  together  have  given 
England  her  high  rank  in  the  iron  and  steel  industries. 
Most  of  the  raw  materials  used  in  the  English  factories  are 
brought  from  other  countries  and  the  many  manufactured 
products  are  shipped  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe.     To 


ENGLAND,    A  LEADER   IN   THE  WORLD'S   INDUSTRY     69 

carry  on  this  exchange  of  goods  requires  an  enormous  fleet 
of  ships ;  so  England  is  the  greatest  commercial  nation  of 
the  world. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Locate  the  chief  manufacturing  cities  of  Great  Britain. 
Which  are  the  leading  centers  of  the  textile  industries  ?  Which 
are  the  leading  centers  of  the  iron  and  steel  industries  ? 

2.  Compare  English  and  American  agricultural  methods. 

3.  Make  as  long  a  list  of  strictly  Enghsh  inventions  as  you 
can. 

4.  Take  a  trip  to  a  harbor  or  freight  depot.  Describe  the 
sights. 

5.  Collect  pictures  of  docks,  piers,  and  harbors. 

6.  Suppose  that  there  were  no  such  things  as  ships.  What 
would  be  the  industrial  situation  in  England  ? 

7.  Does  your  community  send  any  products  to  England  ? 

8.  What  do  you  think  is  the  greatest  cause  of  England's 
prosperity  ? 


CHAPTER   VII 

ENGLAND,    THE    FOUNDER    OF    THE   WORLD'S 
GREATEST    COLONIAL   EMPIRE 

Extent  of  England's  Colonial  Possessions.  —  No  other 
country  is  as  rich  in  colonial  possessions  as  Great  Britain. 
Her  colonies  include  Canada  in  North  America,  British 
Guiana  in  South  America,  British  India  in  Asia,  British 
East  Africa,  Union  of  South  Africa,  the  whole  of  Australia, 
besides  many  small  islands  and  coaling  stations.  In  addi- 
tion she  has  control  in  Egypt. 

Reasons  for  England's  Colonial  Ambition.  —  England 
has  a  boundless  desire  for  colonial  possessions.  Her 
population  is  constantly  overflowing  the  hmited  area. 
Her  ambitious  young  men  seek  careers  which  the  small 
island  cannot  afford.  The  people  are  rich  and  demand  larger 
opportunities  for  the  investment  of  their  money  than  can  be 
found  at  home.  Colonies  afford  the  means  for  thousands 
of  young  people  to  develop  into  successful  business  men 
and  leaders  of  state.  England  has  a  determined  ambition 
to  make  her  kingdom  a  complete  empire,  absolutely  self- 
sufficient  and  independent  of  any  other  nation  in  products, 
industries,  and  commerce.  She  has  sought  the  world 
over  for  resources  and  has  found  them.  The  British  pos- 
sessions are  located  in  every  zone,  but  most  of  them  are  in 
the  Temperate  belt.  While  Canada  extends  from  the 
frozen  Arctic  in  the  north  to  the  temperate  parallel  of 
43°  north  latitude,  British  India  stretches  from  39°  north 
latitude  to  within  8°  of  the  equator.  British  East  Africa 
is  crossed  by  the  equator.     Australia  and  Tasmania  lie 

70 


ENGLAND,  FOUNDER  OF  GREATEST  COLONIAL  EMPIRE    7 1 

between  10°  and  42°  south  latitude.  The  remotest  southern 
English  islands  fringe  the  edge  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean. 
Thus  British  possessions  extend  from  the  most  northern 
point  of  land  on  the  globe  to  the  southernmost. 

British  India.  —  The  most  precious  jewel  in  Great  Brit- 
ain's crown  is  India,  the  middle  peninsula  of  southern 
Asia.  This  country  has  an  area  half  as  large  as  the  United 
States,  with  a  population  three  times  as  great.  It  covers 
the  same  latitudes  as  the  stretch  of  country  between  the 
Ohio  River  and  the  northernmost  point  of  South  America. 
Commercially  India  is  the  chief  country  in  Asia. 

Farm  Products.  —  Most  of  the  land  consists  of  fertile 
plains,  those  in  the  north  being  watered  by  four  large  rivers 
— the  Indus,  Ganges,  Brahmaputra,  and  Irrawaddy.     More 


a  w-  a 


Planting  rice,  India. 


72 


ENGLAND,  FOUNDER  OF  GREATEST   COLONIAL  EMPIRE    73 

than  half  of  the  people  are  engaged  m  agriculture.  Rice, 
wheat,  millet,  meat,  sugar,  and  tea  are  the  chief  foodstuffs. 
In  the  number  of  cattle  raised  India  leads  all  the  other 
countries  of  the  world.  Formerly  dry  years  caused  crop 
failures,  which  resulted  in  famines.  But  since  Great  Brit- 
ain has  completed  the  admirable  railway  systems,  foods 
can  be  easily  shipped  to  the  afflicted  regions.  Irrigation 
has  also  greatly  reduced  suffering  due  to  scarcity  of  food. 

Silk  culture  is  steadily  increasing.  The  soil  and  climate 
are  admirably  adapted  to  the  production  of  cotton.  The 
mother  country  furnishes  an  excellent  market  for  it,  so  it 
is  not  surprising  that  India  produces  more  cotton  than  any 
other  country,  except  the  United  States.  By  government 
regulation  the  production  and  use  of  opium  are  rapidly  de- 
creasing. The  Ganges  district  has  been  called  a  great 
"  hot-house."  Besides  the  articles  above  mentioned,  it 
produces  indigo,  opium,  pepper,  tobacco,  cinnamon,  nut- 
megs, coffee,  and  most  of  the  world's  jute. 

Jute.  —  Jute  is  a  tall  plant  grown  for  the  fibers  that  are 
obtained  from  the  stalks.  After  the  fiber  has  been  sepa- 
rated from  the  woody  parts  of  the  stems,  it  is  baled  and 
shipped,  to  be  woven  into  cloth.  The  woven  cloth  is  used 
mainly  to  make  sacks  and  other  covering  for  goods  in 
shipment.  Large  amounts  are  used  also  in  making  carpets, 
rugs,  and  linoleum.  Burlap  is  usually  made  from  this 
fiber. 

Manufacture  and  Commerce.  —  Formerly  India  was 
noted  for  its  manufacture  of  carpets,  silks,  ornaments  of 
gold,  ivory,  and  precious  stones  made  or  shaped  mostly 
by  hand.  Recently  under  English  inspiration,  modern 
factories  have  been  established,  in  which  machinery  and 
metal  wares,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  paper,  oils,  soaps, 


74 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


and  sugar  are  manufactured.  Although  iron  and  coal  are 
abundant,  the  mines  have  not  been  developed  as  they  have 
in  England.  Great  Britain  has  covered  India  with  a  net- 
work of  good  wagon  roads  and  railways.  She  has  also 
constructed  a  fine  telegraph  system.  Irrigating  and  com- 
mercial canals  have  been  built,  and  harbors  have  been 
improved.  These  have  greatly  promoted  industry,  com- 
merce, and  human  welfare. 

The  leading  exports  of  India  are  raw  jute  and  manu- 
factures of  jute,  raw  cotton  and  cotton  goods,  rice,  oil  seeds, 
wheat  and  flour,  hides  and  skins,  and  tea.  The  chief  im- 
ports are  cotton  cloth,  hardware  and  cutlery,  sugar,  and 
machinery.     About  three  fifths  of  the  total  imports  come 


A  street  scene  in  India. 


ENGLAND,   FOUNDER  OF  GREATEST  COLONIAL  EMPIRE    75 

from  Great  Britain,  while  only  about  one  fourth  of  the 
exports  go  to  that  country.  India  has  little  commerce 
by  land  for  the  Himalaya  Mountains  act  as  a  barrier  to 
northern  trade,  and  so  most  of  the  commerce  is  by  sea. 
Calcutta  and  Bombay  are  the  leading  seaports. 

Australia.  —  Australia,  a  continent  with  an  area  ec^ual 
almost  to  that  of  Europe,  is  Great  Britain's  second  most 
important  colony.  While  rich  agricultural  products  at- 
tracted Enghshmen  to  India,  gold  was  the  force  that  drew 
them  to  Australia.  In  185 1  gold  was  discovered  there 
and  the  next  year  369,000  Englishmen  emigrated  to  Aus- 
tralia. In  a  short  time  the  Australian  gold  fields  increased 
production,  wealth,  and  trade  in  England.  No  industry 
profited  more  from  the  new  gold  fields  than  oceanic  com- 
merce. People  were  richer ;  they  wanted  more  of  the  good 
things  of  hfe  ;  more  was  consumed,  and  more  was  produced. 
This  increased  imports  and  exports. 

Surface  and  Climate.  —  Mountain  ranges  lie  near  the 
eastern  and  southeastern  coast  of  Australia,  and  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  continent  is  a  plateau,  with  a  narrow  coastal 
plain  along  the  western  side.  The  greater  part  of  the 
interior  of  the  country  is  a  low  plain.  Most  of  the  rain 
falls  upon  the  outer  side  of  the  ranges  and  slopes  that  border 
the  coastline,  hence  the  interior  is  quite  dry.  Large  areas 
of  this  section  are  deserts  with  a  very  scanty  growth  of 
grass  and  scrubs.  As  Australia  hes  in  the  south  temperate 
zone,  the  summer  months  are  December,  January,  and 
February. 

Agriculture.  —  Owing  to  the  extensive  grazing  lands, 
sheep  raising  is  the  chief  occupation  of  AustraHa.  The 
merino  sheep  give  this  country  the  largest,  as  well  as 
the  finest,  wool  clips  in  the  world.     Since  it  is  now  possible 


76 


ENGLAND,  FOUNDER  OF  GREATEST  COLONIAL  EMPIRE     77 

to  keep  meat  at  a  low  temperature  during  transportation, 
the  raising  of  cattle  has  become  a  growing  industry.  The 
freezing  of  meat  for  export  is  absolutely  necessary  because 
steamers  from  Australia  must  pass  through  the  torrid  zone 
on  their  way  to  England  and  other  countries.  Butter  is 
another  important  product.  In  the  sections  where  there  is 
sufficient  rain,  field  crops  are  cultivated.  Wheat  is  by  far 
the  most  important  crop  of  the  commonwealth. 


Sheep  raising,  Australia. 

Minerals.  —  Australia  is  one  of  the  world's  leading  pro- 
ducers of  gold.  There  are  also  valuable  deposits  of  silver, 
copper,  coal,  iron,  tin,  zinc,  and  lead.  These  minerals 
are  of  great  commercial  importance.  Manufacturing  has 
not  yet  been  greatly  developed. 


78 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 


Trade  and  Transportation. — The  leading  Australian 
exports  are  wool,  gold,  wheat,  butter,  skins  and  hides,  beef, 
mutton,  and  tallow.  The  leading  imports  are  iron  and 
steel  goods,  cotton  goods,  clothing,  and  machinery.  Most 
of  the  foreign  trade  is  with  Great  Britain.  Several  steam- 
ship lines  keep  Australia  in  close  touch  with  Europe  and 
North  America.  The  chief  seaports  of  Australia  are  Sydney 
and  Melbourne.  Many  railways  have  been  laid  in  Aus- 
tralia. Among  them  is  the  coast  road  from  Adelaide  on 
the  south  by  way  of  Melbourne  and  Sydney  to  Brisbane 
on  the  east.  A  transcontinental  railroad  between  Port 
Augusta  and  Port  Darwin  is  under  construction  ;  also  one 
from  Port  Augusta  to  Perth.  Nearly  all  the  railways  of 
Australia  are  owned  by  the  government. 

The  Islands  of  New  Zealand.  —  New  Zealand,  consisting 
of  two  large  islands  1200  miles  southeast  of  Australia,  is 


A  view  of  Sydney,  Australia. 


ENGLAND,  FOUNDER  OF  GREATEST  COLONIAL  EMPIRE     79 


NEW  ZEALAND 


SCALE    OF  MILES 
6       00     lOO    150    2<K) 


one  of  the  most  thriv- 
ing colonies  of  Great 
Britain.  It  is  a  fine 
example  of  successful 
colonization.  Sturdy 
sons  and  daughters 
of  England  left  the 
mother  country  to 
colonize  these  moun- 
tainous islands,  where 
they  have  been  won- 
derfully successful  in 
both  industry  and 
government.  The  one 
million  prosperous 
New  Zealanders  have 
in  a  short  time  put 
two  thirds  of  the 
area  of  these  islands 
under  cultivation  and 
export     annually 

$100,000,000  worth  of  products.  Auckland,  Wellington, 
Christchurch,  and  Dunedin  are  the  chief  cities  of  New 
Zealand. 

The  chief  industry  is  sheep  raising.  European  countries 
are  supplied  with  wool  and  mutton  from  millions  of  New 
Zealand  sheep.  Many  cattle,  too,  are  raised.  Much  beef 
and  tallow,  and  many  hides,  are  exported.  Enormous 
quantities  of  butter  and  cheese  are  manufactured  and 
shipped  to  markets  12,000  miles  away.  Wheat,  flour, 
apples,  and  peaches  are  considerable  exports.  The  chief 
imports  are  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  and  cotton  and 


16b     Longitude      172      East  from      17G 


8o 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Dunedin,  New  Zealand. 


linen  goods.  Most  of  the  trade  is  carried  on  with  England, 
Australia,  and  India. 

Coal  and  gold  are  the  leading  minerals.  Of  the  former 
not  enough  is  mined  for  home  use;  but  $5,000,000  worth 
of  gold  is  exported  annually.  Manufacturing  is  in  its 
infancy,  because  of  the  lack  of  coal,  but  there  are  good 
coal  mines  which  when  worked  more  extensively  will 
stimulate  industrial  development.  At  present  boots, 
shoes,  woolen  cloth,  lumber,  flour,  and  furniture  are  made 
and  partly  supply  the  demand  of  the  islands.  The  making 
of  spirituous  liquors  is  prohibited. 

It  is  claimed  that  New  Zealand  has  one  of  the  best 
governments  in  the  world.  Great  freedom  is  allowed,  and 
high  standards  of  living  prevail.     Australia  and  New  Zea- 


ENGLAND.  FOUNDER  OF  GREATEST  COLONIAL  EMPIRE    8 1 

land  are  sometimes  called  "  the  newest  England  in  the 
southern  seas." 

Colonial  Africa.  —  Africa  consists  very  largely  of  Euro- 
pean colonies,  with  boundaries  not  always  defmitely  tixed. 
During  the  last  twenty-live  years  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
most  of  the  continent  with  its  uncivilized  natives  passed 
into  the  hands  of  European  nations.  At  the  dawn  of  the 
twentieth  century,  the  larger  and  better  portions  were 
in  the  possession  of  England,  France,  and  Germany.  The 
reason  that  Africa  was  taken  by  these  and  other  nations 
is  that  they  needed  greater  outlet  for  their  overflowing 
population  and  rapidly  increasing  trade.  The  reason  that 
it  could  be  so  easily  taken  was  that  the  savage  tribes  who 
occupied  it  were  so  far  behind  in  civilization  that  up  to  the 
close  of  the  nineteenth  century  this  large,  rich  continent 
was  still  the  least  important  of  all  the  continents.  Great 
Britain,  as  usual,  owns  the  most  valuable  sections. 

British  Colonies  in  South  Africa. — The  British  colonies 
in  South  Africa  include  Bechuanaland,  Rhodesia,  Nyasa- 
land,  and  the  self-governing  commonwealth  known  as 
the  Union  of  South  Africa.  England's  interest  in  Africa 
began  with  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  continent.  This  point,  before  the  Suez  Canal  was 
built  in  1869,  was  an  excellent  port  of  call  for  British 
vessels  on  their  way  to  and  from  India. 

Union  of  South  Africa.  —  This  colony  was  formed  in  1910 
by  the  union  of  the  following  provinces :  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Natal,  Transvaal,  and  Orange  Free  State.  Most  of 
the  country  consists  of  a  plateau  with  scanty  rainfall,  but 
sufficient  for  grass.  Along  the  southeastern  coast  there  is 
abundant  rain.  On  the  grass  lands  of  the  interior  the  rais- 
ing of  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle  is  the  chief  industry.     Os- 


^  IsCS^J      Timbuktu       I    ^5     iy^J:^^     "''^-^t?")         ,' 
V^<\    "/U'l'ITn'^^^ECit'  C','i"*^CV>...=^|    v'!-— Khar 


-g&ilt  /-r  -V         ■■^-oT^^NT^f'i'/ 1    /:6A„ruR 


82 


ENGLAND,    FOUNDER  OF   CiREATEST  COLONIAL  EMPIRE    83 

trich  farming  is  a  profitable  business  and  about  85  per  cent 
of  the  world's  supply  of  ostrich  feathers  comes  from  this 
region. 

Gold  and  diamonds  are  the  most  valuable  products  of 
the  Union.  The  diamond  mines  near  Kimbcrlcy  yield 
practically  all  the  diamonds  of  the  world's  markets.  The 
output  of  these  mines  is  carefully  regulated  in  order  to 
prevent  the  overstocking  of  the  market  and  the  reduction 
of  prices.  Most  of  these  precious  stones  are  sent  to  Lon- 
don. The  Transvaal  gold  fields  are  sources  of  enormous 
income  and  form  one  of  the  leading  gold  producing  districts 
of  the  world. 

The  chief  exports  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa  are  gold, 
diamonds,  wool  and  mohair,  ostrich  feathers,  and  hides 
and  skins.  The  leading  imports  are  food  products,  cotton 
cloth,  clothing,  iron  and  steel,  and  machinery. 

Railway  building  is  receiving  much  attention.  A  trunk 
line  extends  from  Cape  Town  through  Rhodesia,  giving 
transportation  facilities  to  the  interior.  England  hopes 
to  continue  this  railroad  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  This 
is  the  Cape-to-Cairo  railroad,  which  is  being  built  from 
both  ends  toward  the  interior.  When  completed  it  will  be 
very  helpful  in  developing  Africa. 

British  Colonies  in  Tropical  Africa.  —  Riches  of  an 
entirely  different  character  come  from  the  British  colonies 
in  central  Africa.  This  productive  tropical  region  furnishes 
palm  oil,  gums,  rubber,  ebony,  ivory,  tropical  nuts,  and 
hides,  in  exchange  for  textiles,  tobacco,  firearms,  beads, 
metal  ware,  trinkets,  and  preserved  fruits. 

Egypt  and  the  Suez  Canal.  —  Although  Egypt  is  a  vassal 
of  Turkey  yet  England  is  the  real  governing  power.  Eng- 
land's claim  to  a  controlling  part  in  Egypt's  financial  affairs 


84 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


A  primitive  method  of  raising  water  for 
irrigation,  Egypt. 


lies  partly  in  the  fact 
that  she  owns  the  Suez 
Canal,  which  is  a  most 
important  link  in  the 
shortest  sea  route  be- 
tween India  and  the 
mother  country.  Al- 
most three  fourths  of 
the  Canal  trade  is  Brit- 
ish. Under  British 
supervision  justice  has 
been  established  and 
the  people  who  have 
been  oppressed  for 
centuries  now  enjoy 
freedom  and  prosper- 
ity. Great  irrigation 
works  have  been  con- 
structed and  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  desert 


lands  reclaimed.  Another  evidence  of  British  control  is 
the  Cape-to-Cairo  railway,  which  England  has  constructed 
along  the  Nile  River. 

British  Guiana.  —  England  does  not  own  much  terri- 
tory in  South  America.  Her  only  colony  there  is  British 
Guiana  in  the  north,  with  an  area  a  little  larger  than  that 
of  Great  Britain.  The  tropical  climate  interferes  with 
active  industrial  development  in  this  country.  Agricul- 
ture is  not  very  important  because  of  the  small  amount  of 
rich  soil,  merely  a  narrow  strip  along  the  coast.  Sugar 
and  rice  are  the  leading  crops.  The  rough  hilly  interior 
is   covered   with    virgin    forest.     There   is   great  mineral 


ENGLAND,   FOUNDER  OF   GREATEST   COLONIAL   EMPIRE    85 

wealth,  chiefly  gold  and  diamonds.  This  country  exports 
sugar,  molasses,  rum,  timber,  rice,  gold,  and  diamonds.  It 
imports  flour,  tobacco,  fish,  machinery,  hardware,  meat, 
butter,  and  potatoes.  Most  of  the  trade  is  with  the 
mother  country. 

Canada.  —  The  largest  and  most  prosperous  of  all  Eng- 
lish possessions  is  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  lying  just 
north  of  the  United  States.  It  covers  an  area  forty-two 
times  that  of  Great  Britain.  While  Canada  is  a  loyal 
daughter  of  the  mother  country,  she  has  nearly  absolute 
charge  of  her  own  affairs.  England's  power  is  represented 
by  a  Governor-general,  appointed  by  the  king.  The  laws 
are  made  by  a  Parliament  which  consists  of  a  Senate  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor,  and  a  House  of  Commons  elected 
by  the  people.  The  Canadian  ParUament  has  almost  as 
much  power  as  the  Congress  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
limited  only  in  matters  relating   to  foreign   affairs.     No 


The   Assuan   Dam   across  the   Nile.      The   water'  above   the   dam   is 
diverted  into  irrigation  canals. 

British  soldiers  watch  over  Canada ;   its  army  is  composed 
entirely  of  Canadians.     This  colony  is  not  assessed   for 


86 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


even  the  smallest  sum  by  England.  In  short,  she  has  all 
the  independence  and  privileges  which  we  prize  so  highly 
in  our  country.  Then  what  does  England  profit  by  this 
colony?  Canada  gives  commercial  preference  to  England. 
The  duties  levied  by  Canada  on  imports  from  the  United 
Kingdom  and  other  parts  of  the  British  Empire  are  much 
lower  than  those  from  foreign  countries.  In  an  industrial 
age  this  preferential  tariff  is  a  matter  of  great  importance 
to  Great  Britain. 

Area,  Surface,  and  Climate.  —  Larger  than  the  United 
States  and  Alaska  together,  Canada,  lying  between  43° 
and  70°  north  latitude,  extends  over  nearly  as  many  degrees 
as  Europe.     It  is  made  up  of  immense  plains  in  the  east 


Canadian  Houses  of  Parliament,  Ottawa. 


ENGLAND.   FOUNDER  OF   GREATEST   COLONIAL   EMPIRE    87 


Bridge  across  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal. 


and  central  parts,  and  an  extensive  stretch  of  high  plateaus 
and  picturesque  mountains  in  the  west.  While  the  ex- 
treme northern  part  and  the  adjacent  ice-bound  Arctic 
islands  He  in  the  frigid  zone,  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the 
country  is  in  the  temperate  belt. 

Rivers  and  Lakes.  —  Almost  the  entire  country  has 
ample  rainfall,  so  there  are  many  rivers,  well  scattered 
over  the  territory.  The  best  known  inland  waterways  are 
the  Yukon,  Mackenzie,  Saskatchewan,  Nelson,  and  St. 
Lawrence.  Nor  is  there  a  scarcity  of  lakes.  Half  of 
four  of  the  Great  Lakes  on  our  northern  boundary 
belong  to  Canada.  Then  there  are  Lake  Winnipeg,  Great 
Bear  Lake,  Great  Slave  Lake,  besides  scores  of  smaller 
ones. 

Forests.  —  Canada  ranks  next  to  Russia  and  the  United 
States  in  its  timber  resources.  Just  south  of  the  Arctic 
circle  is  a  belt  of  fir,  spruce,  pine,  and  hemlock,  between 
200  and  300  miles  wide.  The  timber  will  be  a  great  source 
of  income  as  soon  as  means  of  transportation  are  pushed 
into  this  north  land.  Farther  south  are  hard  woods,  such 
as  elm,  oak,  beech,  and  maple.     Hundreds  of  sawmills  are 


Longitude 


90 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


A  Canadian  forest. 


ENGLAND,  FOUNDER  OF  GREATEST  COLONIAL  EMPIRE    91 

kept  busy  in  these  forests.  In  addition  to  the  lumber  the 
soft  woods  produce  very  valuable  pulp  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  paper,  which  is  sent  to  England  and  the  United 
States.  For  a  century  lumbering  has  been  a  leading 
occupation. 

Fur  Trade.  —  The  earliest  industry  of  Canada,  and  for 
a  long  time  practically  the  only  one,  was  fur  trading.  The 
great  subarctic  forests  were,  and  still  are  filled  with  the 
beaver,  bear,  marten,  muskrat,  mink,  lynx,  sable,  otter, 
and  the  silver  and  black  fox.  Some  of  these  valuable  fur 
bearers  are  rapidly  dying  out.  The  Hudson  Bay  Fur- 
Trading  Company  has  trapping  stations  all  over  the 
northern  forests,  along  the  waterways,  which  afford  prac- 
tically the  only  means  of  communication  in  summer.  Dog 
sleds  and  snowshoes  are  used  in  winter.  The  Company 
has  its  office  at  Winnipeg.  Canada  is  one  of  the  world's 
largest  fur  producers.  Most  of  the  pelts  are  sent  to  Lon- 
don and  the  United  States. 

Fisheries.  —  The  fisheries,  ranking  among  the  most 
important  in  the  world,  bring  in  large  financial  returns. 
On  the  Atlantic  coast  are  found  valuable  fishing  grounds, 
abounding  in  cod,  halibut,  herring,  mackerel,  haddock, 
oysters,  and  lobsters.  The  Great  Lakes  yield  trout  and 
whitefish.  Salmon  fishing  is  one  of  the  most  profitable 
occupations  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Most  of  the  fish  exports 
go  to  England  and  the  United  States. 

Minerals.  —  Our  northern  neighbor  is  almost  as  rich 
in  variety  and  extent  of  minerals  as  is  the  United  States. 
Gold,  coal,  silver,  copper,  iron,  and  nickel  are  abundant. 
Petroleum  and  gas  are  rather  limited.  The  province  of 
Quebec  controls  the  world's  market  for  asbestos.  The 
Canadian  coal  fields  exceed  those  of  all  Europe.     Portland 


92  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

cement,  clay  products,  and  limestone  also  are  plentiful. 
The  United  States  buys  most  of  Canada's  metals. 

Farm  Wealth.  —  The  greatest  source  of  wealth  lies  as 
yet  in  the  products  of  the  soil.  Wheat,  oats,  hay,  potatoes, 
barley,  corn,  turnips,  and  flax  are  the  chief  crops.  West 
of  Lake  Winnipeg  is  one  of  the  world's  greatest  granaries. 
Those  wheat  lands  cover  four  times  as  many  acres  as  the 
prairies  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  While  it  is  very  cold  in 
winter,  the  summer  days  are  hot  and  from  fourteen  to 
eighteen  hours  long.  So  much  daily  sunshine  makes  prime 
wheat.  It  has  been  predicted  that  before  long  Canada  will 
furnish  the  British  Isles  with  all  their  bread.  Wheat 
ripens  as  far  north  as  56  degrees.  That  puts  Minneapolis, 
which  was  formerly  regarded  as  being  near  the  northern 
limit  of  the  wheat  belt,  in  the  middle  of  it. 

Lately  people  of  other  countries  —  Germany,  England, 
and  even  the  United  States  —  have  migrated  into  Canada's 
wheat  region.  Most  of  them  are  energetic  and  intelhgent ; 
for  great  inducements  are  held  out  to  such.  Canada  does 
not  want  shiftless,  ignorant  men,  or  paupers.  While  the 
immigration  of  worthy,  reliable  men  into  Canada  is  very 
profitable  for  her,  it  is  unfortunate  for  our  country  to  lose 
those  who  go  from  the  United  States  to  Canada. 

Apples,  peaches,  plums,  pears,  and  grapes  are  raised  in 
eastern  Canada.  The  mild  cHmate  of  southern  Ontario, 
due  to  the  influence  of  the  Great  Lakes,  makes  this  region 
the  leading  fruit  section  of  the  Dominion.  Large  fruit 
shipments,  especially  of  apples,  find  their  way  to  Man- 
chester, Liverpool,  and  London. 

Cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  hogs  are  the  leading  farm 
animals  of  Canada.  The  number  of  cattle  is  far  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  kind  of  domestic  animals.     In  the 


ENGLAND,  FOUNDER  OF  GREATEST  COLONIAL  EMPIRE     93 


A  fruit  farm,  Canada. 

grazing  sections  of  western  Canada  cattle  are  raised  merely 
for  beef ;  in  eastern  Canada  they  are  raised  merely  for 
dairy  purposes.  Ontario  and  Quebec  are  the  leading  dairy 
provinces,  and  butter  and  cheese  are  among  their  chief 
products. 

Manufactures.  —  While  factories  are  comparatively  few 
in  number,  the  unhmited  supply  of  minerals,  the  abundant 
water  power  in  the  rivers,  the  vast  lumber  resources,  and 
the  rich  farm  products  offer  great  incentives  to  manufactur- 
ing. Lumber,  flour,  iron  and  steel  products,  leather,  butter 
and  cheese,  dressed  meats,  and  clothing  are  the  leading  man- 
ufactured products.  Raw  materials,  such  as  wool,  rubber, 
cotton,  and  raw  sugar,  are  imported  and  turned  into  manu- 
factured products  in  the  eastern  cities,  notably  Montreal. 


94 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Transportation  Facilities.  —  Canada  is  bountifully  sup- 
plied with  water  routes,  even  though  ice  bound  several 
months  each  year.  She  has  great  continental  railroads,  and 
valuable  canals,  especially  along  the  St.  Lawrence.  The 
Yukon,  Mackenzie,  and  Saskatchewan  are  magnificent 
commercial  highways  in  summer  time.  The  St.  Lawrence 
system  is  one  of  the  very  best.  Engineers  have  improved 
this  river,  deepening  and  widening  it  in  many  places,  so 
that  now  it  carries  large  vessels  2700  miles  into  the  interior. 
The  Canadians  have  connected  their  lakes  and  rivers  with 
some  in  the  United  States  so  as  to  provide  ice-free  winter 
outlets  for  their  trade. 

Railroads.  —  Canada  is  expending  much  energy  and 
money  in  building  railroads.  The  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
road connects  St.  John  on  the  Atlantic  with  Vancouver  on 
the  Pacific.  Owning  several  steamship  lines  on  both 
oceans,  it  has  complete  control  of  the  shortest  route  from 


Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Station,  Winnipeg,  Canada. 


ENGLAND,  FOUNDER  OF  GREATEST  COLONIAL  EMPIRE     95 

London  to  Yokohama.  This  railway  has  brought  Montreal 
and  Yokohama  within  eighteen  days  of  each  other.  A 
new  transcontinental  line,  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific,  has 
just  been  constructed.  It  connects  Halifax  on  the  Atlantic 
with  Prince  Rupert  on  the  Pacific,  by  way  of  Quebec, 
Winnipeg,  and  Edmonton.  It  passes  through  rich  agri- 
cultural, forest,  and  mineral  lands,  and  with  the  steamships 
of  the  company  will  form  a  second  short  route  from  Great 
Britain  to  Japan.  The  Canadian  Northern  is  a  third 
transcontinental  railroad. 

Another  railroad  is  contemplated  from  Winnipeg  to 
Hudson  Bay,  giving  a  shorter  outlet  for  the  wheat.  Since 
Hudson  Bay  is  open  for  commerce  only  three  and  a  half 
months  each  year,  the  wheat  shipment  would  have  to  be 
very  heavy  to  make  such  a  road  profitable. 

As  the  trade  between  Canada  and  the  United  States 
is  very  active,  many  railways  have  been  built  connecting 
the  two  countries. 

Cables.  —  Several  cables  owned  by  private  companies 
connect  Canada  with  England  across  the  Atlantic.  An 
all-British  cable  joins  Canada  and  Australia  across  the 
Pacific. 

Cities.  —  Ottawa  is  the  capital  of  Canada.  Toronto  and 
Hamilton  are  im.portant  cities  on  Lake  Ontario.  Although 
a  thousand  miles  from  the  sea,  Montreal  is  the  chief  sea- 
port of  Canada.  Engineers  have  made  it  possible  for  ocean 
steamers  to  come  up  to  this  inland  city  on  the  St.  Lawrence. 
It  is  three  hundred  miles  nearer  England  than  New  York  is. 
Quebec  is  a  manufacturing  center.  The  fact  that  it  is  the 
summer  port  for  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  railroad  will  in- 
crease its  commercial  importance.  Halifax  and  St.  John 
have  the  only  ice-free  harbors  of  Canada. 


96 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Docks  at  Montreal. 


Winnipeg,  on  the  edge  of  the  prairies,  is  the  greatest 
distributing  center  of  the  interior.  Edmonton  is  a  meeting 
place  for  hunters  and  trappers,  and  the  headquarters  for 
hunters'  and  trappers'  suppHes.  Vancouver  is  the  chief 
Pacific  port.  Steamers  sail  between  Vancouver  and  Japan, 
China,  and  Australia. 

The  exports  of  this  great  agricultural  country  are  wood 
products,  wheat,  cheese,  silver,  flour,  bacon,  and  other 
commodities.  Its  imports  consist  of  manufactured  goods. 
England  needs  the  foods,  and  is  glad  to  sell  to  the  Canadians 
cloths,  iron  and  steel  goods,  and  other  factory  products. 

Canada  and  the  United  States.  —  The  United  States 
is  in  closer  touch  with  Canada  than  with  any  other  coun- 
try, for  the  two  border  on  each  other  for  3000  miles.  Both 
have  equal  rights  to  four  of  the  greatest  lakes  in  the  world. 
The  people  in  both  countries  speak  the  EngHsh  language. 


ENGLAND,  FOUNDER  OF   GREATEST  COLONI.AL   EMPIRE     97 

Canada  and  the  United  States  vary  enough  in  their 
products  to  foster  an  excellent  trade  relation.  The  one  is 
chiefly  an  agricultural  country  and  therefore  has  foodstuffs 
to  sell;  the  other  is  rapidly  becoming  a  manufacturing 
nation  and  could  exchange  factory  products  for  food.  We 
need  Canada's  metal  ores.  Our  forest  supply  is  nearing 
exhaustion.  We  are  fortunate  in  that  the  well-stocked 
Canadian  forests  are  near  by.  Canada  receives  most  of  her 
imports  from  the  United  States.  The  relations  between 
the  two  nations  are  most  cordial. 

Newfoundland.  —  Newfoundland,  an  EngUsh  island  off 
the  coast  of  British  North  America,  but  in  no  way  con- 


View  of  Vancouver  and  harbor. 


98  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

nected  with  the  government  of  Canada,  is  noted  chiefly 
for  its  fisheries.  Codfish,  iron  and  copper  ores,  cod-hver 
oil,  sealskins,  and  canned  lobsters  are  exported. 

Coaling  Stations.  —  In  order  to  protect  these  large, 
widely  scattered  colonies.  Great  Britain  has  secured  a 
number  of  small  islands  and  towns  that  encircle  the  earth 
and  form  excellent  landing  and  coaling  stations  for  ships 
in  their  journeys  from  colony  to  colony.  Though  small, 
these  are  no  mean  possessions,  as  they  help  to  secure 
England's  supremacy  of  the  sea.  At  the  west  entrance 
of    the   Mediterranean  she  owns   Gibraltar,  the  southern 


Gibraltar. 

point  of  Spain ;  midway  across  the  sea,  the  island  of 
Malta ;  at  its  eastern  end  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Her 
control  of  Egypt  secures  her  undisputed  sway  in  the 
Suez  Canal. 

Where  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean  meet,  Eng- 
land owns  Aden  in  southwestern  Arabia,  also  a  small  ad- 
joining island.  The  island  of  Ceylon,  south  of  British 
India,  and  the  port  of  Singapore  at  the  southern  extremity 


ENGLAND,  FOUNDER  OF  GREATEST  COLONIAL  EMPIRE    99 

of  the  Malay  peninsula  are  other  English  stepping  stones 
in  the  Indian  Ocean. 

The  island  of  Hong  Kong  on  the  east  coast  of  China  is  very 
helpful  in  getting  Chinese  trade  and  watching  affairs  in  east- 
ern Asia.  Many  of  the  swarms  of  small  islands  in  the  Pacific, 
east  and  southeast  of  Australia,  also  belong  to  England. 

The  Bermudas  are  a  group  of  small  islands  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  about  600  miles  east  of  North  Carolina. 
The  Bahamas,  Jamaica,  and  Trinidad  are  some  of  the  most 
important  British  islands  of  the  West  Indies.  In  the  South 
Atlantic  are  the  Falkland  Islands  and  South  Georgia.  Near 
Africa,  between  the  Equator  and  20°  south  latitude,  are  St. 
Helena  and  Ascension  Island. 

A  Widely  Scattered  Empire.  —  The  area  of  Great 
Britain's  colonies  and  island  possessions  is  ninety  times 
that  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  About  91  per  cent  of  the 
British  subjects  live  outside  the  British  Isles.  The  mother 
country  is  very  helpful  and  liberal  to  her  colonies.  Where- 
ever  England  plants  her  flag,  law,  order,  and  progress  soon 
prevail.  Because  of  the  freedom  they  enjoy,  British  sub- 
jects in  all  parts  of  the  world  are  loyal  to  the  Empire. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Follow  the  courses  of  the  various  steamship  lines  between 
England's  ports  and  her  chief  colonial  seaports.  What  exports 
do  they  take  ?     What  imports  do  they  bring  back  ? 

2.  In  what  ways  is  Great  Britain  helpful  to  the  United 
States?     How  does  the  United  States  help  Great  Britain? 

3.  What  is  England's  chief  ambition?  Is  it  a  good  one? 
Will  she  realize  it  ? 

4.  Find  out  how  England  acquired  her  colonies.  Which 
of  them  all  could  she  least  afford  to  lose?  Which  could  she 
lose  with  the  least  concern? 


lOO  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

5.  Collect  pictures  of  views  in  the  various  English  colonies. 
Mount  them  by  countries  on  separate  cardboards. 

6.  Which  is  more  valuable  to  England :  India  or  the  Suez 
Canal  ? 

7.  Make  a  comparative  tabulated  schedule  of  the  chief  prod- 
ucts of  England's  colonies. 

8.  Make  a  tabulated  schedule  of  Great  Britain's  interests 
in  the  Indian  Ocean ;  in  the  Mediterranean ;  in  the  Atlantic  ; 
in  the  Pacific. 

9.  What  good  services  has  England  rendered  Australia? 
India  ?     Egypt  ? 

ID.  Show  how  the  size  and  wealth  of  an  empire  depends  on 
the  happiness  of  the  subjects. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

POLITICAL   AND    SOCIAL    CONDITIONS    IN    THE 
UNITED    KINGDOM 

Government.  —  While  the  head  of  the  Enghsh  govern- 
ment is  a  king  or  queen,  yet  the  government  is  really  a 
republic,  for  the  people  govern  themselves  as  we  do  in  the 
United  States.  The  legislative  department  consists  of 
Parliament,  which  is  made  up  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  the 
House  of  Commons.  The  Lords  hold  their  positions  for 
life,  while  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  are  elected 
by  the  people.  The  term  of  office  of  the  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons  may  end  at  any  time  that  the  people 
wish  to  be  represented  by  other  men.  The  real  governing 
power  of  the  British  nation  is  the  Enghsh  cabinet  and  the 


Houses  of  Parliament,  London. 

lOI 


I02 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


House  of  Commons.  Nearly  all  bills  are  introduced  by  the 
Cabinet  officers,  for  each  is  a  member  either  of  the  House 
of  Commons  or  of  the  Lords.  The  House  of  Lords  has 
much  less  power  than  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  for 
it  cannot  defeat  legislation ;  it  can  only  delay  its  passage. 
The  English  sovereign  has  less  power  than  our  President. 
He  cannot  veto  a  bill  as  the  President  has  a  right  to  do. 
While  the  English  ruler  has  few  constitutional  powers,  yet 
because  of  the  feeling  of  loyalty  and  respect  that  the  British 
people  have  for  their  sovereign,  he  has  great  influence  in 
the  social  and  political  affairs  of  the  nation. 

Suffrage.  —  In  the  United  Kingdom  nearly  all  male 
citizens  of  legal  age  have  the  right  to  vote.  Years  ago  only 
property  owners  could  vote,  but  now  the  right  of  suffrage 
belongs  not  only  to  owners  of  property,  but  also  to  those 
who  rent  land  or  houses.  Owners  of  property  in  different 
localities  have  the  right  to  vote  in  each  of  these  localities. 
Many  English  women  are  demanding  suffrage,  and  they 
expect  that  this  right  will  soon  be  granted  them. 


Home  of  a  wealthy  landowner. 


POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS 


103 


Large  Estates.  —  Although  there  are  many  small  land- 
owners in  the  United  Kingdom  most  of  the  land  is  held 
by  a  few  very  wealthy  landowners,  and  is  farmed  by 
tenants.  Laws  carefully  guard  the  rights  of  the  tenants  and 
it  is  quite  usual  for  a  farm  to  be  rented  by  several  genera- 
tions of  one  family. 

An  English  Estate.  —  Let  us  visit  an  English  estate. 
The  castle  or  modern  mansion  in  which  the  landlord  lives 
is  surrounded  by  a 
beautiful  park,  laid 
out  by  landscape 
gardeners,  with 
smooth  drives 
shaded  by  rows  of 
magnificent  trees. 
Elsewhere,  culti- 
vated shrubbery  and 
flower  beds  charm 
the  eye.  A  Httle 
farther  off,  upon  a 
hillside,  stands  a 
native    forest,    with 


An  English  cottage. 


its  crooked  paths  and  a  pretty  little  stream  —  here  gurgling 
in  the  sunshine,  there  flowing  deep  and  still  at  the  feet  of 
ancient  trees.  This  is  an  ideal  spot  for  the  hunter  and  the 
fisherman.  On  the  estate  live  a  colony  of  people  whose 
business  it  is  to  beautify  the  grounds  and  keep  the  property 
in  repair.  Foresters  care  for  the  trees ;  carpenters  repair 
and  build  fences  and  farm  buildings ;  gardeners  cultivate 
vegetables  and  fruits ;  and  other  laborers  trim  hedges, 
build  macadamized  roads,  and  construct  stone  walls. 
At  one  edge  of  the  park  is  a  thriving  town  of  several 


I04  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

thousand  inhabitants,  mostly  tenants  of  the  lord.  On  the 
estate  are  many  fertile  farms  rented  to  tenants.  There  is 
a  great  difference  between  English  farm  Kfe  of  to-day 
and  that  of  a  hmidred  years  ago.  Better  methods  and. 
improved  machinery  have  increased  returns  and  decreased 
drudgery,  so  that  farm  life  in  England,  as  in  America, 
is  less  dull  and  monotonous.  The  farmers  are  more  intel- 
ligent and  prosperous  than  formerly,  and  therefore  happier 
and  more  hopeful. 

Besides  the  large  home  estate,  the  landlord  may  own 
houses  and  lands  in  London  or  Liverpool,  rich  mines,  busy 
factories,  and  great  harbors.  An  English  landlord  is 
usually  not  a  man  of  leisure.  Much  of  his  time  is  spent  in 
examining  the  reports  and  directing  the  activities  of  agents 
who  look  after  the  details  of  his  business  affairs.  In  short, 
the  work  of  an  English  landlord  is  much  like  the  manage- 
ment of  a  small  kingdom  and  quite  as  difhcult. 

Condition  of  Factory  Workers.  —  Factories  brought  in 
many  undesirable  conditions.  They  were  generally  over- 
heated and  poorly  ventilated.  Many  women  and  young 
children  were  employed  because  they  would  work  for  less 
than  men.  The  hours  of  labor  were  too  long ;  and  the 
close  indoor  work  was  unhealthful.  The  children  re- 
mained uneducated,  and  they  were  often  injured  by 
machinery  and  mistreated  by  the  overseers.  Parents 
were  frequently  as  careless  of  the  welfare  of  their  children 
as  the  employers  were.  They  kept  them  from  school  so 
that  their  earnings  might  bring  a  little  more  money  into 
the  family  treasury.  Because  of  insufhcient  pay,  the  work- 
ing classes  lived  in  poverty  and  dirt;  food  was  poor  and 
scant ;  and  the  death  rate  was  very  high,  which  was  due 
largely  to  frequent  epidemics.    After  some  years  Parliament 


POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS  105 

provided  for  better  conditions.  New  factory  laws  were 
passed.  Night  work  was  prohibited,  working  hours  re- 
duced, better  ventilation  of  factories  secured,  and  provision 
was  made  for  educating  factory  children.  About  1850  a 
Saturday  half-hohday  was  granted. 

The  well-being  of  the  workers,  due  to  individual  and 
government  efforts,  has  steadily  advanced.  The  sanitary 
conditions  in  factories  have  been  greatly  improved,  and  the 
working  hours  repeatedly  shortened.  The  compulsory 
education  law  has  from  time  to  time  raised  the  age  limit 
at  which  children  may  leave  school.  The  laborer  has  risen 
in  the  social  scale.  In  the  gloomy  days  of  the  past  the 
laws  seemed  to  be  against  him.  To-day  his  vote  gives  him 
more  and  more  control  of  living  conditions.  In  no  country 
does  the  laboring  class  have  a  greater  voice  in  legislation 
than  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Parliament  has  done 
much  for  the  laborer  and  his  family. 

Old-age  Pensions  and  National  Insurance.  —  In  1908 
Parliament  passed  a  law  granting  a  small  pension  to  every 
person  over  seventy  years  old  whose  annual  income  is  less 
than  $165,  provided  he  has  not  been  an  idler  or  a  criminal, 
and  is  not  receiving  relief  from  some  private  source.  In 
191 1  the  National  Insurance  Act  was  passed.  This  law 
provides  for  medical  attendance  and  the  payment  of 
money  to  persons  in  time  of  sickness.  It  also  provides  in 
certain  specified  trades  the  payment  of  money  in  case  of 
unemployment.  The  money  comes  from  assessments  made 
upon  workers  during  periods  of  health  and  employment, 
from  assessments  levied  upon  employers,  and  also  from 
government  funds.  The  aim  of  these  laws  is  the  preven- 
tion of  poverty  in  case  of  illness,  unemployment,  or  old 
age. 


io6 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 


The  Navy  and  Army.  —  In  order  to  protect  her  commerce 

and  the  widely  scat- 
tered countries  of 
the  Empire,  England 
maintains  the  largest 
navy  in  the  world. 
The  navy  calls  for 
thousands  of  men 
and  an  enormous 
outlay  of  money. 
The  British  army 
is  scattered  among 
all  parts  of  the 
Empire  to  maintain 
peace.  The  army 
in  the  United  King- 
dom is  quite  small. 
Great  Britain  has 
not  been  invaded  by 
an  enemy  for  eight 
and  a  half  centuries, 
and  since  the  coun- 
try is  an  island,  it 
relies  upon  the  navy  for  protection  and  does  not  need  a 
large  army. 

Education.  —  England  has  long  given  much  attention 
to  the  education  of  the  upper  classes.  Her  leading  uni- 
versities, Oxford  and  Cambridge,  are  among  the  best  in 
the  world.  For  a  long  time  Great  Britain  gave  little 
thought  to  public  elementary  education,  but  to-day  the 
elementary  schools  are  receiving  special  attention.  The 
British  high  schools  give  thorough  training  in  secondary 


©  Underwood  &  Underwood. 

British  troops  passing  Westminster  Abbey 


POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS  107 

education.     The    increased    educational    advantages    are 
producing  finer  citizens  year  by  year. 

Conclusion.  —  England,  the  mother  country  of  the 
largest  g,nd  most  widely  scattered  empire  on  the  globe, 
deserves  our  admiration  for  her  industrial  and  colonial 
supremacy.  We  may  well  rejoice  that  our  country  was 
colonized  and  founded  by  such  a  progressive  nation.  We 
may  be  glad  that  so  many  Americans  have  an  English 
ancestry.  The  English  language  is  spoken  by  more  people 
than  any  other.  Our  English  inheritance  in  law,  customs, 
language,  and  literature  plays  no  small  part  in  the  suc- 
cess of  our  own  country. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  What  two  houses  compose  the  British  Parliament? 

2.  Compare  and  contrast  the  British  Parliament  and  the 
American  Congress. 

3.  Who  is  the  present  British  sovereign  ? 

4.  Describe  an  English  countr}^  estate. 

5.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  Rhodes  Scholarships. 

6.  Why  is  it  desirable  for  England  and  the  United  States 
to  be  on  friendly  terms  ? 


What  factors 

have  contributed  to  Germany's 

industrial  rise  from  sluggishness  and 

poverty  to  a  high  place  among 

the  great  nations  ? 


THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE 


CHAPTER  IX 
HOW  GERMANY  CAST  OFF  SERFDOM  AND  POVERTY 

The  Early  Part  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.  —  During 
the  first  fifty  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  while  Eng- 
land was  enjoying  her  industrial  and  commercial  suprem- 
acy, Germany  was  suffering  from  serfdom  and  poverty.  It 
consisted  of  a  number  of  small  states  or  provinces,  which 
were  loosely  united  in  a  Confederation.  Many  wars  had 
been  fought  with  neighboring  countries,  which  resulted  often 
in  the  loss  of  a  province  of  the  Confederation.  The  state 
treasuries  were  empty;  the  upper  classes  had  lost  their 
wealth ;  and  the  common  people  had  few  rights  except  to 
pay  taxes  and  be  soldiers.  When  war  broke  out,  they  gave 
their  Hves  for  their  country,  because  they  were  compelled 
to  do  so.  Their  patriotism  was  not  very  great  and  their 
services  were  not  cheerfully  rendered.  Why  should  they 
love  their  country  ?  It  could  not  do  much  for  them.  No 
wonder  then  that  thousands  of  Germans  iied  to  the  United 
States.  Those  who  remained  behind  made  a  living  as  best 
they  could.     Many  a  time  they  longed  to  be  with  their 

109 


no 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


cousins  beyond  the  sea.  If  at  that  time  the  Atlantic  could 
have  been  crossed  in  six  days  instead  of  six  long  weary  weeks 
doubtless  many  more  of  the  people  of  Germany  would  have 
flocked  into  our  country.  The  expense  of  the  trip,  however, 
kept  most  of  them  at  home.  Let  us  consider  some  of 
the  causes  that  brought  about  this  deplorable  condition. 

Lack  of  Union  among  the  States.  —  As  has  been  said, 
there  was  no  real  union  among  the  many  small  provinces, 
of  which  at  one  time  there  were  a  hundred  and  eighty  bound 
to  each  other  merely  as  a  loose  Confederation,  with  few 
common  interests  and  no  great  common  cause.  And  what 
was  still  worse  they  were  exceedingly  jealous  of  one  an- 
other. Petty,  selfish  motives  controlled  both  princes  and 
people.  The  lords  supervised  all  the  industries  closely. 
Scarcely  an  article  was  produced  without  the  consent  of 
the  rulers,  who  often  behaved  as  if  they  thought  the  country 
existed  solely  for  their  benefit. 


Farming  in  olden  times. 


HOW   GERMANY   CAST   OFF   SERFDOM   AND   POVERTY     III 

Primitive  Rural  Conditions.  —  At  the  opening  of  the 
century  the  population  was  largely  rural.  In  the  west 
there  were  small  peasant  holdings.  The  prevailing  poverty 
prevented  progressive  methods  of  agriculture.  Coopera- 
tion and  division  of  labor  were  practically  unknown.  Each 
family  had  to  be  self-sufficient ;  that  is,  it  had  to  produce 
all  its  necessities  of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  The  father, 
mother,  and  all  the  children  worked  at  the  common  task 


Peasant  women  spinning  and  wearving. 


of  making  a  living.  Every  family  was  its  own  planter, 
harvester,  miller,  and  baker.  It  raised  and  butchered  its 
own  stock;  cured  and  smoked  its  own  meat.  It  was  its 
own  mason,  carpenter,  and  repairer.  Together  the  mem- 
bers of  the  family  planted,  reaped,  and  spun  the  flax.  Then 
they  wove  the  thread  into  linen,  dyed  the  cloth,  and 
made  the  garments.  They  brewed  their  drinks,  and  made 
by  hand  their  soap  and  candles.     No  high  degree  of  skill 


112 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Medieval  city  wall,  Rothenberg. 


HOW   GERMANY  CAST  OFF  SERFDOM   AND   POVERTY    1 13 

could  be  produced  under  such  circumstances.  The  best 
thing  about  all  this  was  that  the  people,  young  and  old, 
learned  how  to  work  and  to  cling  to  a  task  until  it  was  done. 

Landed  Estates.  —  In  the  eastern  provinces  large  es- 
tates were  held  by  incompetent  landlords.  To  each  of 
them  belonged  a  community  of  laborers,  who  were  in  effect 
merely  serfs.  Each  of  the  peasants  at  first  owned  a  small 
tract  of  land.  He  was  compelled  to  surrender  a  part  of  all 
harvests  to  his  lord,  besides  giving  him  a  certain  number 
of  days'  labor  each  year  free  of  charge.  Heavy  taxes  were 
exacted  of  the  bondmen.  Their  burdens  became  more  and 
more  irksome  until  at  last  the  master  owned  everything. 
The  serfs  had  no  personal  liberty.  They  could  not  hire 
themselves  out  as  they  pleased,  for  they  belonged  to  the 
estate.  They  could  not  marry  whom  they  pleased  without 
the  consent  of  the  lord.  Their  children  also  were  chattels. 
Permission  to  study  or  learn  a  trade  had  to  be  obtained 
from  the  master,  who  had  the  further  right  to  apply  cor- 
poral punishment  whenever  he  deemed  it  necessary.  By 
and  by  men  began  to  realize  the  awful  injustice  of  such 
conditions.  One  by  one  the  provinces  put  an  end  to  this 
serfdom.  By  181 6  all  German  serfs  had  become  freemen. 
That  was  a  great  step  toward  promoting  industrial  welfare. 

Town  Life.  —  About  a  fourth  of  the  population  lived  in 
towns,  but  in  many  of  them  half  of  the  people  were  engaged 
in  farming  or  stock  raising.  There  were  few  cities  in  those 
days,  and  a  town  of  10,000  was  considered  very  large. 
In  1800  there  were  fewer  towns  with  10,000  inhabitants 
than  there  were  cities  of  100,000  in  1900.  Factories  were 
entirely  unknown,  but  the  laborers  devoted  themselves  to 
specific  occupations.  Some  spent  all  their  time  spinning 
or  weaving  in  their  own  houses.     Many  men  followed  a 


114  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

given  trade ;  as  baking,  butchering,'  or  tailoring.  They 
did  not  hire  themselves  out  to  one  man,  but  went  about, 
upon  call,  from  house  to  house;  just  as  physicians  and 
painters  do  now  in  our  country. 

The  Effect  of  War  upon  Germany.  —  For  centuries 
war  was  a  common  occupation  in  Europe.  Germany, 
situated  in  the  heart  of  the  continent,  often  became  the 
common  battle  ground  even  when  she  did  not  have  a  con- 
flict of  her  own.  That  meant  serious  loss.  Crops  were 
destroyed,  homes  were  burned,  animals  were  stolen,  and 
strong  robust  young  men  were  killed,  or  maimed  so  as  to 
become  unfit  for  successful  industry.  War,  too,  always 
plunged  the  people  deeper  and  deeper  into  debt.  So  there 
was  very  little  capital  to  put  into  industry  and  when,  about 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  manufacturing 
began  to  be  developed,  Germany  had  to  borrow  vast  sums 
of  money  from  other  nations,  mostly  from  Belgium  and 
England,  and  had  to  pay  from  lo  to  30  per  cent  interest. 
At  the  same  time  Holland  could  borrow  all  she  wanted  at 
from  3  to  6  per  cent,  because  she  had  a  better  industrial 
standing  among  nations  than  Germany. 

Duties  on  Interstate  Trade.  —  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  believe  that  the  German  states  levied  customs  duties 
on  products  carried  from  state  to  state,  from  city  to  city, 
and  even  from  the  country  into  the  towns.  But  it  is  true, 
because  each  small  community  wanted  to  protect  its  own 
industries  and  to  force  its  people  to  produce  all  that  their 
markets  called  for,  no  matter  how  Httle  fitted  for  it  they 
might  be.  This  meant  waste  of  energy  and  high  cost  of 
living.  Little  by  little  certain  provinces  entered  into  com- 
pacts with  one  another  to  remove  the  tariff  on  goods  that 
they  exchanged.     By  18 18  a  tariff  union  was  formed,  assur- 


HOW  GERMANY  CAST  OFF  SERFDOM  AND  POVERTY  1 15 

ing  free  trade  among  eighteen  states.  Then  goods  began 
to  move  freely  from  one  to  another  of  these  provinces  and 
the  increased  exchange  demanded  more  production,  and 
better  means  of  transportation. 

Transportation  Facilities.  —  When  the  eighteenth  century 
gave  place  to  the  nineteenth,  German  transportation 
facilities  were  poor  indeed.  The  wagon  roads  were  deep 
beds  of  mud  in  rainy  seasons,  heavy  masses  of  dust  in 
summer,  and  rough  frozen  ruts  in  winter.  One  German 
prince  is  reported  to  have  broken  twenty-five  wheels  on 
one  trip,  because  of  the  wretched  roads.  At  that  time  it 
cost  $85  to  go  from  Leipzig  to  Frankfurt  and  it  required 
an  entire  week ;  for  the  only  way  to  travel  was  by  post 
wagon.  The  same  trip  can  now  be  made  in  a  few  hours 
for  five  or  six  dollars.  The  best  and  practically  the  only 
means  of  sending  freight  was  by  sailboat  on  the  rivers, 
but  the  rates  were^o  high  that  long  shipments  were  out 
of  the  question.  /The  year  181 7  marks  a  great  event  in 
the  industrial  triumphs  of  Germany ;  for  then  the  first 
steamboats  were  tried  on  the  Weser  River.  Befere  long 
all  the  rivers  were  carrying  products  by  steam.  [The  great- 
est boon  to  German^mmerce  came  with  the  introduction 
of  the  railroad  in  1835/  At  first  only  short  lines  were  built, 
connecting  local  points ;  but  soon  thousands  of  miles  of 
railroads  connected  distant  cities.  In  the  meantime 
Macadam  of  Scotland  had  discovered  a  new  method  of 
building  substantial  wagon  roads.  Germany  immediately 
adopted  the  macadamized  highways,  which  formed  valuable 
arteries  of  trade  from  outlying  districts  to  railroad  centers. 

Early  in  the  century  there  were  great  differences  in  the 
prices  paid  for  the  same  article  in  the  various  provinces. 
By  1840,  when  free  trade  between  the  states  was  assured 


Il6  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

and  the  methods  of  transportation  had  been  improved, 
prices  became,  not  merely  more  nearly  uniform,  but  lower. 
Now  people  in  each  district  began  to  devote  themselves 
to  the  production  of  those  articles  for  which  their  district 
was  best  adapted.  The  consequent  increased  production 
helped  to  meet  the  greater  demands  caused  by  improved 
shipping ;    and  yet  the  supply  was  insufhcient. 

Beginning  of  the  Factory  System.  —  Next  to  food,  the 
greatest  demands  are  for  clothing ;  hence  the  spinners  and 
weavers  early  profited  by  the  improved  industrial  condi- 
tions. Community  spinning  mills  were  estabHshed  at 
waterfalls  in  the  hills  or  among  the  mountains.  Weaving 
companies,  formed  to  supply  the  necessary  exports,  engaged 
individual  famiUes  to  work  for  them.  Spinning  and  weav- 
ing machines  were  run  first  by  hand,  then  by  animal  power, 
and  finally  by  water  power.  The  spinning  jenny  was  in- 
troduced long  after  it  had  come  into  use  in  England,  but 
it  proved  just  as  great  a  boon  to  the  Germans  as  to  the 
Enghsh.  By  the  middle  of  the  century  the  introduction 
of  steam  power  made  possible  a  wonderful  increase  in  the 
manufacture  of  textiles.  This  caused  the  development 
of  the  factory,  though  for  a  long  time  much  weaving  con- 
tinued to  be  done  in  the  homes,  and  some  of  it  is  still  done 
there. 

The  Iron  Industry.  —  The  two  decades  between  1850 
and  1870  marked  the  beginning  of  wholesale  manufacture, 
not  only  in  textiles  but  also  in  the  metals.  Improved 
methods  in  mining  caused  a  great  increase  in  the  produc- 
tion of  coal,  and  the  iron  manufactures  were  revolutionized 
in  the  middle  of  the  century  because  coal  was  substituted 
for  charcoal  in  the  smelting  of  the  iron.  As  a  result  the 
country  soon  entered  upon  its  wonderful  machine-making 


HOW    GERMANY    OVST   OFF   SERFDOM    AND    POVERTY     II7 

age.  Before  1850  not  only  England,  but  Belgium  and 
France  as  well,  surpassed  Germany  in  iron  output.  By 
1870  the  latter  had  outstripped  both  her  neighboring  rivals, 
and  in  the  early  dawn  of  the  present  century  she  surpassed 
even  England.  To-day  she  ranks  second  among  the  world's 
iron  producers. 

Science  Applied  to  Industry.  —  About  the  time  that 
steam  came  into  general  use,  the  Germans  began  to  realize 
that  scientific  study  applied  to  production  assured  greater 
success  than  random  experimenting.  In  the  universities 
the  laws  of  nature  and  the  forms  of  matter  were  studied  as 
they  never  had  been  studied  before  in  any  country,  to  the 
end  that  every  effort  at  production  should  be  crowned  with 
success,  whether  in  the  paving  of  a  street,  the  raising  of 
potatoes,  or  the  making  of  a  toy.  Nothing  was  to  be  left 
to  chance.  Seventy  per  cent  success  in  mining,  farming, 
or  manufacturing  was  not  to  be  any  longer  accepted.  Men 
were  determined  that  success  should  equal  100  per  cent 
of  the  effort  expended.  No  wonder  that  business  expanded. 
Between  1850  and  1870  insurance  companies  were  organized, 
which  is  an  evidence  that  cooperation,  mutual  helpfulness, 
and  confidence  of  man  in  man  had  taken  the  place  of  hatred, 
jealousy,  and  mistrust.  During  the  same  time  many 
stock  companies  were  organized  for  the  purpose  of  develop- 
ing mines,  factories,  railroads,  and  banks.  Trade  grew  so 
fast  that  it  called  for  and  obtained  new  and  uniform  laws, 
removing  ancient  stumbling  blocks  and  regulating  com- 
merce. 

Factories  Give  Rise  to  New  Social  Conditions.  —  The 
industrial  changes  brought  about  new  conditions  of  life. 
People  moved  from  the  country  to  the  towns,  from  their 
individual  cottages  to   rented  suites  in  large  apartment 


Il8  THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

houses.  Cities  grew  faster  than  in  any  other  country  except 
the  United  States.  Even  some  of  the  farmers,  hke  their 
city  cousins,  left  their  homes  for  the  factory  in  the  morn- 
ing and  returned  at  night.  Much  of  the  farm  work  was 
left  to  the  women.  The  city  streets  were  thronged  with 
people  as  never  before.  Housing  problems  of  sanitation, 
plumbing,  heating,  and  Hghting  presented  themselves. 
Changes  of  all  kinds  came  thick  and  fast. 

Formerly  the  work  of  men  and  of  women  was  the  same ; 
now  it  became  different.  Then  one  man  might  work  at  a 
variety  of  trades ;  now  each  devoted  himself  to  one.  But 
the  wages  increased ;  the  people  became  thriving  and 
happy.  The  population  grew  rapidly.  By  1870  great 
pride  was  taken  in  the  feeling  of  German  brotherhood. 

Wisdom,  out  of  Misfortune.  —  During  the  many  years 
of  serfdom,  industrial  weakness,  and  poverty  through 
which  Germany  passed,  there  were  wise  men  who  kept 
their  brains  busy  day  and  night  thinking  of  plans  for  the 
betterment  of  the  German  people.  While  some  men  re- 
moved the  interstate  tariffs  on  commercial  products,  others 
introduced  steamboats  and  railroads.  Some  developed 
mines,  and  others  built  factories.  Instead  of  being  com- 
pletely discouraged  over  the  defeat  in  a  war,  they  bravely 
said,  "  We  must  free  our  peasants  and  give  them  the  right 
of  citizenship.  Then  they  will  be  more  intelligent,  and 
gladly  serve  our  country  in  her  hour  of  need."  When  the 
great  Emperor  Napoleon  defeated  the  Germans  at  the 
battle  of  Jena  in  1806,  the  most  thoughtful  men  said,  "  We 
must  educate  our  children,  so  that  this  will  never  happen 
again.  The  nation  that  has  the  schools  has  the  future." 
And  then  they  began  the  development  of  their  world- 
famous  system  of  schools. 


now    (GERMANY    CAST   OI'F   SKRI'DOM    AND    l'()\  i:RTV      I  19 


The  Birth  of  the   German  Empire  in   1870-1871.  —  A 

fortunate  thing  it  was  that  the  t)kl  Germans  did  not  lose 
courage  during  those  dark  days,  but  that  they  planned 
for  future  greatness.  For,  suddenly  one  day,  while  they 
were  still  only  a  confederation  of  states,  war  was  declared 
between  France  and 
Prussia,  the  leading 
German  province. 
The  dispute  that  led 
to  this  war  was  who 
should  own  the  two 
pro\inces  of  Alsace 
and  Lorraine,  at  that 
time  in  possession  of 
the  French.  Up  to 
1870  the  Rhine  sep- 
arated the  French 
and  the  German  pos- 
sessions. Prussia  de- 
clared that  as  the 
Rhine  and  a  large 
strip  of  land  along 
its  western  bank  had 
formerly  belonged  to 
the  Germans,  there 
was  no  reason   why 

those  provinces  should  not  belong  to  them  again.  The 
many  German  states  joined  in  the  common  cause  and 
fought  so  vaHantly  that  the  Prussian  king  captured  Paris 
in  January,  187 1,  and  thus  the  Germans  gained  full  pos- 
session of  the  middle  Rhine,  two  large  rich  provinces  on 
its  west  bank,    and  $1,000,000,000  war    indemnity.     But 


w^ 

fgjk   , 

f^^k. 

i 

^^^^k^kii^^^^^^^E        M 

'  "'"      ^'            ■ ■"  1 

William  I  and  his  grandson,  William  II. 


HOW   GERMANY   CAST   OFF   SERFDOM   AND    POVERTY     1 21 

the  greatest  victory  was  that  the  German  states  had  so  far 
forgotten  their  jealousies  of  one  another  that  they  were 
able  to  unite  into  one  strong  country.  King  William  of 
Prussia  became  the  Emperor  of  the  new  Germany.  The 
twenty-three  states  swore  to  be  loyal  to  the  Fatherland ; 
and  William  I,  later  called  Wilham  the  Great,  became  the 
first  emperor  of  modern  Germany.  Then  the  people  went 
to  work  in  real  earnest,  not  merely  for  their  various  states, 
but  for  the  nation  which  bound  them  together  as  one  great 
family. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  The  United  States,  too,  was  once  merely  a  confederation 
of  states.  Find  out  what  the  conditions  of  prosperity  were  at 
that  time. 

2.  Do  you  see  a  reason  why  there  is  a  friendly  relation  between 
Germans  and  Americans  ? 

3.  What  characteristics  of  the  German  people  have  enabled 
them  to  become  a  great  commercial  nation  ? 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  natural  resources  of  Germany. 

5.  Which  had  more  to  do  with  German  progress,  —  the  nat- 
ural resources  or  the  characteristics  of  the  people  ? 

6.  Do  you  see  any  resemblances  between  the  early  industrial 
development  of  Germany  and  England  ? 

7.  What  manly  \nrtues  do  peace  .and  industry  develop? 


CHAPTER    X 
MODERN    GERMANY 

The  New  Industrial  Era.  —  Although  much  had  been 
accomplished  in  the  industries  before  1870,  it  was  only  the 
early  dawn  of  a  great  era  of  prosperity.  There  were  still 
many  house  industries ;  factories  were  comparatively  few. 
The  articles  manufactured  were  often  clumsy  and  crude, 
but  always  durable  and  reliable ;  nevertheless  they  could 
never  compete  with  the  far  superior  factory  products  of 
England.  The  two  French  provinces  that  had  been  gained 
in  the  war  taught  the  Germans  many  valuable  lessons, 
especially  how  to  improve  the  quality  of  their  manufactures. 
Before  187 1  the  money  used  to  build  up  the  factories,  had 
to  be  borrowed  at  high  rates  of  interest  from  foreign  lands. 
After  187 1  the  war  indemnity  was  invested  in  manufacturing 
enterprises  which  required  more  and  more  of  the  labor  of 
the  nation. 

From  Agriculture  to  Manufacturing.  —  In  the  course  of 
time  the  rapidly  increasing  population  became  too  large 
to  be  supported  by  the  food  that  could  be  raised  on  German 
soil.  People  were  compelled  to  turn  their  attention  to  the 
making  of  articles  that  could  be  sold  in  foreign  markets. 
These  factory  products  had  to  pay  for  imported  food. 
Necessity,  then,  drove  this  country  to  manufacturing,  and 
the  increasing  prosperity  promoted  the  change.  The  tran- 
sition from  house  industry  to  factory  employment  caused 
considerable  suffering  to  the  laboring  classes  in  Germany, 
as  it  had  in  England,  but  it  was  not  so  severe,  for  the  change 
came  more  gradually. 


MODERN   GERMANY 


123 


The  industrial  freedom  and  activity,  together  with  the 
new  national  aims,  necessitated  a  uniform  money  system, 
which  was  finally  secured  in  1873.  The  large  surplus  of 
factory  products  compelled  the  nation  to  develop  inter- 
national trade,  not  only  with  her  European  neighbors,  but 
with  countries  far  away  beyond  the  seas.  The  people 
now  began  to  realize  that  the  future  of  Germany  lies  on 
the  ocean. 


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1 

A  German  forest. 


^  Germany's  Natural  Resources.  —  While  the  great  indus- 
trial progress  of  Germany  is  largely  due  to  the  energy  and 
intelligence  of  the  people,  yet  the  natural  advantages  of  the 
country  have  been  important  factors.  Location,  surface, 
climate,  soils,  minerals,  forests,  and  waterways  are  the  chief 
geographic  influences  in  the  development  of  Germany. 


124  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

Location  and  Climate.  —  The  location  of  Germany  is 
both  an  advantage  and  a  disadvantage.  Her  position  in 
the  heart  of  the  most  highly  developed  continent,  where 
she  is  surrounded  by  seven  prominent  productive_jiations, 
is  an  asset  because  it  affords  excellent  trade  opportunities. 


These  surrounding  countries  are  good  markets  for  "her  prod- 
ucts and  from  them  she  receives  articles  that  she  lacks. 
There  is  also  a  good  income  from  the  transit  trade  which 
crosses  her  territory  from  the  neighbors  on  one  side  to  those 
on  the  other.  On  the  other  hand  likelihood  of  war  is  in- 
creased in  proportion  to  the  number  of  neighbors.  Again 
Germany  is  favored  by  her  two  fine  water  boundaries,  the 
Baltic  and  the  North  seas.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  location  of  the  country  for  trade  is  excellent. 

Her  position  between  47°  and  ^6°  north  latitude  places 
Germany  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone,  the  most  favorable 
to  man's  progress.  But  being  in  the  northern  half  of  the 
zone  she  has  the  cool  temperate  rather  than  the  warm  tem- 
perate climate.  The  mountains  at  the  south  shut  out  the 
warm,  southern  breezes,  while  the  low  plains  at  the  north 
invite  the  rigorous  winter  winds ;  hence  a  large  part  of  the 
year  is  cold.  The  weather  is  tempered  considerably  by  the 
mild  breezes  from  the  Atlantic,  but  their  influence  is  less 
felt  in  eastern  Germany,  where  consequently  the  contrasts 
between  summer  and  winter  are  greater  than  in  the  west. 
The  rainfall  is  ample  to  make  this  country  compare  favor- 
ably with  others  in  its  returns  from  field,  garden,  and 
forest. 

Surface.  —  The  surface  features  of  Germany  consist  of 
every  variety  of  landscape  except  the  very  highest  moun- 
tains. In  the  northern  part  is  a  great  stretch  of  lowland, 
which  occupies  the  larger  part  of  the  country.     The  land 


MODERN    GERMANY  125 

gradually  rises  from  the  lowlands  in  the  north  to  the  high- 
lands, ending  finally  in  the  majestic  snow-covered  German 
Alps  of  the  south.  The  green  valleys  afford  fine  pastures, 
which  give  rise  to  profitable  stock  raising.  The  forests^ 
covering  mountain  slopes,  hill  sides,  and  sandy  lowlands, 
are  noted  the  world  over  for  their  beauty  as  well  as  for  their 
valuable  timber.     Germany's  scenery  has  attracted  many 


A  scene  in  the  Hartz  Mountains,  Germany. 

tourists  who  contribute  much  to  the  prosperity  of  the  coun- 
try, for  they  need  food  and  shelter,  and  frequently  buy 
articles  to  take  home.  The  tourist  trade  is  an  important 
occupation  in  most  European  countries. 

The  tourist  interests  have  received  attention  ever  since 
1870.  Munich  alone  has  more  than  500,000  guests  annually, 
almost  as  many  as  its  inhabitants,  and  they  spend  millions 
of  dollars  for  board  and  lodging  alone,  besides  hundreds  of 


126 


THREE  INDUSTRL\L   NATIONS 


thousands  of  dollars  for  souvenirs,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
sums  paid  for  theaters,  concerts,  street-car  service,  and 
other  incidental  expenses.  In  1905  the  Munich  railroad 
authorities  received  $4,000,000  for  passenger  tickets  and 
baggage  charges.  Railways  have  been  built  into  the  very 
heart  of  the  mountains;    and  wayside  inns  are  found  at 

convenient  intervals 
along  the  many  for- 
est and  highland 
paths.  Scenic  im- 
provement societies 
have  been  formed  to 
preserve  and  culti- 
vate the  beauties  of 
nature. 

Household  Indus- 
tries in  the  Forests. 
— The  evergreen, 
beech,  maple,  wal- 
nut, and  oak  forests 
that  grow  on  barren 
lowlands  and  non- 
productive highland 
slopes  are  well  scat- 

A  German  toy  shop.  ^^^^^  throughout  the 

German  Empire.  They  are  of  inestimable  value  to  whole- 
sale  manufacturers  in  large  cities: — &esidES7t[iey'givejQse'^ 
to  many  small  household  Industries  in  the  midst  of  the 
forests,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  wooden  clocks  in  the 
Black  Forest,  and  of  willow  baskets,  matches,  wood  pulp, 
and  celluloid  in  the  forests  along  the  Main  River.  In  other 
places  musical  instruments,  such  as  violins  and  zithers,  are 


I 


MODERN   GERMANY  1 27 

made  by  hand.  Toy  making,  which  originated  in  the 
forests,  is  still  carried  on  there  to  some  extent.  Dolls, 
furry  animals,  boats  and  ships,  wooden  soldiers,  dominoes, 
the  whole  menagerie  of  Noah's  ark,  guns,  tool  chests,  and 
toy  music  boxes  are  made  of  wood.  Toy  models  of  houses 
are  made  of  papier-mache. 

Many  famihes  devote  themselves  to  the  manufacture  of 
wooden  animal  toys.  The  father  makes  the  cattle ;  the 
mother,  the  sheep  ;  the  older  brother,  the  horses ;  the  sister 
makes  the  horns  and  tails;  and  the  youngest  member  of 
the  household  pastes  them  on.  Finally  the  grandfather 
paints  them  and  then  they  are  ready  for  the  market  of  the 
world.  Thus  the  humblest  homes  in  Germany  play  a  part 
in  international  trade.  It  is  a  poorly  paid  business ;  for 
all  this  labor  the  family  receives  the  sum  of  four  dollars  for 
six  thousand  toys.  This  is  probably  the  poorest  paid  work 
of  modern  German  industries.  Yet  we  are  told  that  these 
toy  makers  are  a  happy  folk,  full  of  the  joy  of  Hfe. 

German  Forest  Conservation.  —  Germany  is  very  proud 
of  her  forests,  which  cover  one  fourth  of  the  area  of  the 
country.  One  third  of  them  belong  to  the  state  govern- 
ments and  the  crown ;  and  one  fifth  are  the  property  of 
various  communities.  The  German  word  "  Wald,"  mean- 
ing "forest,"  occurs  in  the  names  of  many  places;  for 
example,  "  Schwarzwald,"  the  "  Black  Forest,"  and 
"  Thuringerwald,"  the  "  Thuringian  Forest."  Wliile  they 
yield  abundant  timber,  the  forests  do  not  decrease ;  for 
no  waste  is  allowed.  Men,  called  foresters,  are  specially 
trained  to  supervise  and  care  for  the  woods.  Only  mature 
trees  are  cut  down,  and  a  sapling  is  planted  in  the 
place  of  each  tree  removed.  Underbrush,  which  readily 
catches  and  spreads  fire,  is  not  permitted  to  grow.     No 


128  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

people  understand  forest  conservation  better  than  the 
Germans  do. 

The  German  Soil.  —  Nine  tenths  of  the  land  in  Germany 
is  productive.  The  remaining  one  tenth  comprises  marshes, 
swamps,  mountain  rocks,  and  sandy  wastes.  The  area  of 
fertile  soil,  suitable  for  field  and  garden  crops,  is  about  one 
half  of  the  total  productive  area.  The  tracts  of  poor  soil 
and  steep  slopes  are  occupied  by  permanent  pastures  and 
forests. 

Improvement  in  Agriculture.  —  For  hundreds  of  years 
prior  to  the  nineteenth  century  agriculture  in  Germany 
was  carried  on  with  almost  no  improvement.  Poor  methods 
of  farming  were  used  and  the  yield  of  farm  products  was 
extremely  low.  About  1812,  one  man,  who  had  studied 
the  improvements  in  English  farming,  wrote  and  lectured 
much  about  better  methods  in  agriculture.  After  a  time 
his  advice  was  followed  by  the  large  landlords ;  and  as  soon 
as  the  small  landowners  saw  the  good  results  of  the  new 
methods  they  too  adopted  them.  Agricultural  colleges, 
which  were  established  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  did  much  to  improve  farming.  They  introduced 
modern  rotation  of  crops  and  better  methods  of  cultivating 
the  soil.  The  old-fashioned  tools  were  discarded,  and  be- 
cause the  Germans  could  not  at  that  time  make  better 
ones  they  imported  farm  implements  from  England.  In 
due  time  the  land  was  more  carefully  fertilized ;  greater 
pains  were  exercised  in  the  selection  of  seed ;  new  varieties 
of  plants  were  developed ;  and  soils  were  carefully  studied 
in  order  to  determine  the  crops  best  adapted  to  them.  As 
a  consequence  the  farming  lands  were  increased  con- 
siderably in  area,  from  one  third  of  the  country  in  1800 
to  almost  one  half    in    1900;   and  with    this  increase    in 


MODERN   GERMANY 


129 


I 


I30 


THREE   INDUSTRI.'VL   NATIONS 


°o°o°  I  Sugar  Beets 
,   «     I  Potatoes 


Leading  agricultural  products  of  Germany. 

acreage   came   a    greater  increase   in   the   yield  per  acre. 

Agriculture  at  the  Present  Time.  —  Agriculture  is  a 
more  important  industry  in  Germany  than  it  is  in  Great 
Britain,  because  her  territory  is  more  extensive,  her  conti- 
nental climate  gives  her  a  greater  variety  of  crops,  and 
her  sunny  harvest  season  is  better  adapted  to  the  gathering 
of  the  grains  and  hay  than  are  the  foggy  summers  of  Great 
Britain.  The  leading  crops  of  Germany  are  potatoes,  rye, 
oats,  hay,  barley,  wheat,  and  sugar  beets. 

Grains.  —  The  production  of  rye  and  oats  is  far  greater 
than  that  of  wheat  and  barley.  In  the  yield  of  rye  and 
barley  Germany  ranks  second,  being  excelled  only  by 
Russia,  which  is  a  much  larger  country.  In  the  yield  of 
oats  Germany  ranks  third,  being  outranked  by  the  United 


MODERN   GERMANY 


131 


States  and  Russia.  While  rye  is  the  chief  bread  cereal  of 
the  German  people,  yet  a  larger  increase  in  wheat  produc- 
tion over  that  of  rye  indicates  a  growing  use  of  wheat 
bread.  Large  quantities  of  rye  from  Russia  and  wheat 
from  Argentina  and  the  United  States  are  imported. 

Potatoes.  —  In  the  production  of  potatoes  Germany 
excels  all  other  countries.  Potatoes  are  a  favorite  article 
of  food  among  the  common  people.  Moreover,  they  have 
been  much  used  lately  in  the  manufacture  of  alcohol. 

Sugar  Beets.  —  The  sugar  beet  is  a  fleshy  root  resembling 
the  common  beet  and  is  from  one  to  three  inches  in  diameter 
across  the  top.  It 
is  white  and  often 
gently  tapering.  It 
grows  in  any  soil 
that  produces  pota- 
toes,  and  flourishes 
in~~a  cooler  cHmate 
than  the  sugar  cane. 
The  amount  of  sugar 
in  a  beet  depends 
more  upon  the  qual- 
ity of  its  juice  than 
upon  its  size,  and  is 
increased  by  prop- 
erly fertihzing  the 
land.  The  beet  re- 
quires less  tedious 
labor    in    planting 

than     the    cane    but  Cultivating  sugar  beets. 

the  work  of  cultivation  is  more  arduous.  When  the  roots 
are  harvested  they  are  washed,  shced,  and  put  into  reser- 


132  THREE   INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

voirs  of  hot  water  to  extract  the  juice,  which  is  boiled 
down  and  refined  into  sugar. 

At  present  the  world  produces  as  much  beet  sugar  as 
cane  sugar.  Germany  ranks  first  in  the  p^rodiiction  of 
sugar  beetsand_in  the  manufacture  of  beet^  sugar.  Great 
Britain  is  Germany's  best  market  for  this  product.  Much 
of  the  German  sugar  is  sent  also  to  Norway,  Canada, 
Japan,  Switzerland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Uruguay,  Nether- 
lands, and  Chile.  Five  causes  explain  Germany's  lead  in 
beet  sugar.  They  are :  suitable  climate  and  soil ;  pains- 
taking cultivation ;  the  research  spirit  of  the  Germans, 
which  discovered  the  best  method  of  extracting  the  sugar 
from  the  beets ;  the  tariff  on  cane  sugar  imports ;  and  the 
government  bounties  on  exported  beet  sugar. 

Other  Crops.  —  The  other  noteworthy  crops  of  Ger- 
many are  hops,  tobacco,  and  fruits.  Intensive  truck 
gardening  and  flower  culture  receive  much  attention 
throughout  the  country,  both  to  meet  the  demands  for 
food  and  to  satisfy  the  sense  of  beauty.  Increasing  interest 
is  taken  in  greenhouse  plants  which  rival  the  flowers  of 
sunny  Italy  and  France.  Fruit  trees,  especially  plums, 
apples,  pears,  and  cherries,  surround  the  villages  and  line 
the  country  roads.  Grapes  are  raised  on  the  terraced  slopes 
of  many  hills.  Every  one  has  heard  of  the  luscious  purple 
fruit  that  ripens  in  the  vineyards  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine. 

Animal  Industries.  —  Many  meadows  abound  in  western 
and  northern  Germany,  where  the  sea  causes  an  unusually 
damp  atmosphere,  favorable  to  the  growth  of  grass.  They 
are  also  found  on  the  plateaus  and  mountain  slopes  in  the 
south,  where  there  is  a  greater  condensation  of  moisture 
than  in  the  warm  lowlands.  Sixteen  per  cent  of  the  area  of 
Germany  consists  of  natural  pasture  lands.     These  grazing 


MODERN   GERMANY  1 33 

areas  and  meadows  furnish  food  for  large  numbers  of  live 
stock.  The  principal  cattle  and  dairying  interests  are 
located  in  the  Bavarian  Alps  and  other  southern  highlands, 
and  in  certain  sandy  limestone  districts  along  the  northern 
coast  near  Holland.  Many  cheese  and  butter  factories 
have  been  built  in  the  dairy  sections. 

The  sheep  industry,  which  was  prominent  before  i860, 
has  fallen  off  considerably  lately  on  account  of  the  recent 
competition  in  wool  production  by  Australia  and  Argentina. 
A  limited  number  of  sheep  and  also  of  horses  are  raised  in 
the  eastern  provinces  where  the  rainfall  and  consequently 
the  grass  is  less  abundant  than  in  the  west.  Hog  raising, 
in  which  Germany  ranks  among  the  foremost  countries 
on  earth,  is  on  the  increase,  inasmuch  as  pork  forms  a  large 
part  of  the  flesh  food  of  the  people.  Even  the  poorest 
peasant  fattens  one  or  more  hogs  a  year.  Poultry  raising 
on  a  small  scale  is  quite  general,  especially  in  the  east ;  but 
wholesale  production  is  practically  undeveloped.  Conse- 
quently the  imports  of  live  and  dressed  poultry  and  eggs 
are  heavy.  About  one  fourth  of  the  honey  made  in  Europe 
comes  from  bees  cared  for  in  Germany.  The  fisheries  in 
inland  w^aters  and  on  the  North  Sea  employ  between  thirty 
and  forty  thousand  men.  Still  the  fish  imports  amount  to 
twice  as  much  as  the  value  of  those  caught  at  home,  in  spite 
of  the  efforts  of  the  government  and  local  fish  associations 
to  promote  this  source  of  food  supply.  Although  there 
has  been  such  wonderful  progress  in  late  years  in  the  ani- 
mal industries  of  tliis  country,  meat  is  still  a  large  part  of 
her  imports. 

Mineral  Wealth.  —  Germany  is  one  of  the  richest  coun- 
tries in  the  world  in  minerals.  For  sixty  or  seventy  years 
she  has  lost  no  time  or  energy  in  developing  this  underground 


134 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Hard  Coal 
Soft  Coal 
Iron  Ore 
z    z     Zinc 
c  c     Copper 
s  s     Silver 
L    L      Lead 
N   N     Nickel 


Chief  minerals  of  Germany. 


wealth.  Her  greatest  mineral  region  lies  in  the  middle  belt 
of  the  country.  Extending  eastward  to  Russia  and  west- 
ward to  Belgium,  and  along  the  Rhine  as  far  north  as  Hol- 
land, it  occupies  fully  a  third  of  the  area  of  Germany. 
Here  are  unusual  deposits  of  coal,  both  hard  and  soft^  and 
also  of  iron  ore.  These  form  the  basis  of  modern  Germany's 
industrial  success.  Mines  and  smelting  works  employ 
one  fifth  of  the  German  laboring  classes.  Coal,  which  is 
everywhere  the  mainstay  of  the  manufacturing  industry,  is 
even  more  abundant  in  Germany  than  in  Great  Britain, 
though  at  present  her  output  is  still  excelled  by  the  United 
States  and  England.  It  is  estimated  that  the  rich  mines 
along  the  lower  Rhine  will  last  1300  years  if  100,000,000 


MODERN   GERMANY  135 

tons  are  mined  annually.  A  still  larger  coal  field  lies  in 
southeastern  Germany. 

Germany  has  other  rich  mineral  deposits.  It  is  unsur- 
passed in  the  production  of  zinc,  potash  salts,  and  litho- 
graphic stone.  Nickel,  copper,  silver,  and  lead  also  yield 
handsome  returns.  There  are  inexhaustible  supplies  of 
slate,  marble,  and  fine  building  stone,  as  well  as  of  table 
salt.  The  potash  salts,  valuable  as  a  fertilizer,  have  be- 
come a  leading  export.  Only  one  twentieth  of  the  prod- 
uct is  used  on  the  home  farms ;  while  an  eighth  of  it  goes 
to  England  and  half  of  it  to  the  United  States. 

Modern  German  Manufactures. — In  addition  to  the 
marvelous  development  of  production  in  Germany  on  farms 
and  in  the  mines  since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury wonderful  changes  have  also  taken  place  in  manu- 
factures. In  the  first  place  the  making  of  articles  merely 
for  personal  or  family  needs  has  been  replaced  by  wholesale 
production  for  the  masses.  Household  industries  have 
given  way  more  and  more  to  factories.  However,  we  must 
not  believe  that  the  factory  has  robbed  the  home  of  all  its 
part  in  manufactures ;  for  silks  and  velvets  of  superior 
quality  are  still  woven  in  private  homes ;  toys  also  are 
made  by  people  in  their  own  dwellings  ;  pottery  products, 
certain  kinds  of  metal  wares,  as  well  as  other  articles,  are 
even  yet,  to  a  limited  extent,  home  manufactures.  Division 
of  labor  has  been  pushed  so  far  that  no  one  can  become  mas- 
ter of  a  complete  trade.  New  materials  are  substituted  for 
old  ones  ;  for  example,  iron  for  wood,  and  cement  for  stone. 
Better  and  better  products  are  turned  out  faster  and  faster 
to  meet  the  demands  of  an  ambitious  and  energetic  people. 

Iron  and  Steel  Industries.  —  The  German  iron  and  steel 
industries  are  the  most  important  in  Europe.     Much  of 


136 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


A  modern  German  locomotive. 


these  products  is  consumed  in  the  making  of  machinery 
for  mining,  smelting,  spinning,  weaving,  and  other  indus- 
tries. In  late  years  bridges  and  buildings  have  been  con- 
structed largely  of  iron  and  steel.  Locomotives,  street 
railways,  iron  steamships,  steel  furniture,  steel  rails,  fire- 
arms, skates,  saws,  files,  and  cutlery  are  made  in  the  many 
cities  clustered  about  the  Rhine.  As  one  rides  through  that 
part  of  the  country  around  Essen,  where  the  largest  steel 
mills  in  the  world  are  located,  the  cities  look  like  forests 
of  smokestacks,  and  the  noise  of  machinery  fills  the  air. 

Textile  Industries.  —  Even  before  the  factories  were 
introduced,  Germany  had  a  reputation  for  her  linen  and 
woolen  fabrics,  which  grew  out  of  her  sheep  industry  and 
the  raising  of  flax.  Now  she  produces  fewer  sheep  and 
manufactures  more  woolen  cloth,  chiefly  from  the  raw 
material  which  she  receives  from  Australia.  Breslau  has 
large  woolen  factories.  Cotton  manufacturing  is  also 
extensively  carried  on,  especially  at  Cologne,  Elberfeld, 
and  Chemnitz,  the  latter  sometimes  called  the  Manchester 
of  Germany.  Silks  and  velvets  are  made  in  the  towns 
centering  around  Cologne.  Germany  depends  upon  the 
United  States  for  her  raw  cotton,  upon  China  and  Italy 
for  the  raw  silk,  and  partly  upon  Russia  for  flax.     She  is 


MODERN   GERMANY 


137 


experimenting  with  cotton  culture  in  her  African  colonies 
in  the  hope  of  making  herself  less  dependent  upon  others 
for  this  raw  material. 

The  Chemical  Industry.  —  The  chemical  industry  ranks 
third  among  German  manufactures.  German  chemists 
imderstand  the  art  of  extracting  valuable  by-products  from 
plants,  animals,  and  minerals.  Materials  which  other 
nations  call  waste  are  taken  into,  the  German  laboratories. 
All  kinds  of  experiments  are  tried  with  them  until  they 
yield  something  profitable.  In  1827  the  first  chemical 
laboratory  was  established  at  one  of  the  universities,  where 


Rolling  steel  plates  in  a  German  steel  works. 

men  tried  many  experiments  and  made  some  valuable 
combinations  of  acids  and  salts.  To-day  there  are  many 
such  laboratories  not  only  in  universities  but  in  factories 
as  well.  Her  early  building  up  of  schools  and  the  research 
habit  are  now  making  Germany  industrially  great.     The 


138 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


A  chemical  laboratory. 


chemical  products  produced  each  year  are  more  valuable 
than  all  her  machinery.  Great  sums  of  money  are  invested 
in  the  manufacture  of  chemicals  and  they  yield  large  annual 
dividends.  In  i860  Germany  was  compelled  to  import 
almost  all  her  dyes.  To-day  she  furnishes  the  world  with 
four  fifths  of  all  the  dyestuffs  it  uses.  She  imports  coal 
tar  from  other  countries,  manufactures  it  into  dyes,  and 
sends  them  back  to  those  same  countries  at  greatly  ad- 
vanced prices. 

Another  striking  case  of  chemical  development  is  that 
of  indigo.  Some  years  ago  the  raising  of  the  indigo  plant 
was  a  flourishing  business  in  India  and  was  controlled  by 
the  English.  From  the  coal-tar  by-product  a  German 
chemist  learned  to  extract  indigo.  Since  1903  England 
buys  more  indigo  annually  from  Germany  than  she  did 


MODERN   GERMANY 


139 


from  India  before  that  date.  To-day  Germany  makes 
three  fourths  of  the  world's  indigo.  Some  of  Germany's 
iron  ore  contains  phosphorus,  which  lowers  the  quality  of 
the  steel  made  from  the  iron.  In  1868  a  process  was  discov- 
ered of  separating  the  phosphorus  from  the  ore.  The 
phosphorus  thus  obtained  is  now  manufactured  into  a 
commercial  fertilizer  worth  $45,000,000  a  year.  Germany 
now  excels  all  other  countries  in  the  chemical  industry. 

Electrical  Industries.  —  Another  of  Germany's  most 
profitable  sources  of  income  is  her  electrical  industries. 
Thirty  years  ago  the  use  of  electricity  was  almost  unknown 
except  in  telegraphy.  To-day  it  enters  into  scores  of  indus- 
tries; such  as  electric  railways,  lighting  of  houses,  tele- 
phones, electric  motors,  and  wireless  telegraphy.  Thou- 
sands of  people  are  employed,  and  billions  of  money  are 


A  German  electrical  works. 


I40  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

invested  in  these  industries.  Germany  leads  all  Europe 
and  ranks  second  in  the  world  in  electrical  industries.  This 
country  has  more  than  a  third  of  the  continent's  electric  rail- 
ways, and  Germans  have  built  many  of  the  roads  for  other 
European  countries,  and  some  for  South  America.  She 
manufactures  more  electrical  machinery  than  any  other 
nation  except  the  United  States ;  and  exports  much  of  it 
to  Great  Britain  and  other  nations. 

Other  Manufactures.  —  While  iron  and  steel  goods,  tex- 
tiles, and  chemicals  are  the  leading  manufactured  products, 
yet  there  are  many  other  important  manufactures.  Ger- 
many is  renowned  for  its  book-publishing  business,  whose 
chief  center  is  Leipzig.  Beet  sugar,  beer,  alcohol,  musical 
instruments,  laces,  tobacco,  leather,  furniture,  and  jute 
fabrics  are  a  few  of  the  many  products  that  are  extensively 
manufactured. 

"Made  in  Germany."  —  During  the  last  thirty  years 
and  more,  articles  '^  made  in  Germany  "  have  found  their 
way  into  every  quarter  of  the  earth.  While  such  products 
are  not  as  a  rule  noted  for  their  elegance  they  are  gladly 
accepted  for  their  serviceableness.  Germany  can  make 
and  does  make  very  beautiful  things,  but  most  of  her 
manufactures  are  durable  rather  than  beautiful.  This 
policy  has  gained  for  her  so  much  international  trade  that 
she  ranks  second  among  the  nations,  next  to  England,  in 
foreign  commerce. 

Commerce  of  Germany.  —  From  a  deplorable  condition 
of  domestic  trade  and  a  very  limited  foreign  commerce, 
Germany  has  developed  into  one  of  the  three  leading  com- 
mercial nations.  The  railroads,  na\agable  rivers,  and 
canals  provide  efficient  means  of  transportation  within 
the  country  itself ;    and  German  ships  bring  raw  materials 


MODERN   GERMANY 


141 


from  all  parts  of  the  world  and  carry  away  the  products  of 
German  factories  to  all  lands. 

The  Rivers  of  Germany.  —  Germany  is  rich  in  navigable 
rivers.  The  Rliine,  Weser,  Elbe,  Oder,  and  Vistula  are 
excellent  trade  highways  connecting  the  north  with  the 
south  ;  and  the  Danube  is  most  valuable  in  connecting  Ger- 
many with  southeast  Europe.  In  the  last  decades  Ger- 
many has  steadily  extended  and  improved  her  waterways. 


A  scene  on  the  Rhine. 


The  channels  of  the  rivers  have  been  deepened,  the  banks 
have  been  walled  up  with  masonry,  and  ships  adapted  to 
the  rivers  have  been  built. 

The  Rhine  River  is  the  greatest  inland  commercial  water- 
way_in_the  Empire.  Within  twenty-five  years,  more  than 
$5,000,000  have  been  spent  on  the  bed  of  this  stream  alone. 
It  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  European  rivers,  and  has 
long  been  far  famed  for  its  grim  ruined  castles  and  ancient 


142  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

towers  with  their  countless  echoes  of  the  past.  Many 
legends  and  stories  cluster  about  the  Rhine.  Fantastic 
tales  are  told  of  imprisoned  princesses,  and  kings'  children 
turned  to  stone,  of  dragons,  and  whirlpools,  and  sirens 
enchanting  sailors  into  destruction.  While  the  Germans 
love  this  river  for  its  romantic  legends  and  historical 
associations,  they  are  to-day  putting  their  best  efforts  into 
making  old  Father  Rhine  a  thoroughly  modern  waterway. 
The  10,000  steamers  plying  up  and  down  the  stream, 
carrying  coal,  iron,  grain,  wine,  lumber,  and  factory  prod- 
ucts, pass  great  national  monuments,  fruitful  vineyards, 
strong  fortresses,  and  busy  wharves  of  thriving  cities. 
This  river  has  cost  the  Germans  much  blood  as  well  as 
money.  No  wonder  that  they  prize  it  so  highly  and  defend 
it  so  well.  The  Rhine  and  the  Elbe  carry  German  goods 
toward  the  North  Sea,  whence  the  products  start  upon  their 
ocean  journeys  toward  the  west.  The  Danube  transports 
merchandise  from  southern  Germany,  southeast  into  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  through  the  Balkan  states  to  the  Black  Sea. 
Canals.  —  Natural  east  and  west  water  routes  were  not 
nearly  so  plentiful  as  those  between  the  south  and  the 
north.  So  canals  were  built  from  river  to  river,  connecting 
the  German  waters  with  those  of  France,  Austria-Hungary, 
and  Russia.  The  Great  Midland  Canal  unites  all  the 
rivers  from  the  Vistula  to  the  Rhine.  The  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
Canal  extends  from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  in  the  North  Sea 
to  Kiel,  an  important  port  on  the  Baltic.  This  canal, 
sixty-one  miles  long,  greatly  increases  the  trade  of  the 
Baltic  region,  for  it  saves  the  ships  much  time  and  many 
possible  dangers  incident  to  the  cold,  stormy  water  route 
north  of  Denmark.  Including  rivers  and  canals  Germany 
has  nearly  9000  miles  of  navigable  waterways. 


MODERN    GERMANY 


143 


The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal. 


Modern  German  Railroads.  —  In  1835  Germany  began 
the  construction  of  railroads.  At  first  the  roads  were 
built  with  private  means.  About  1880  the  state  began  to 
build  new  railways  and  to  buy  old  ones ;  and  to-day  the 
government  owns  almost  all  the  railroads.  No  country 
offers  cheaper  transportation  than  Germany.  The  rail- 
roads, extending  in  all  directions,  rank  next  to  those  of  the 
United  States  in  mileage,  equipment,  and  importance. 
Within  this  country  are  many  transcontinental  railroad 
lines  knitting  firmly  together  all  parts  of  Europe.  Thus 
Germany  has  become  the  heart  in  which  the  great  trade 
highways  center  and  from  which  they  radiate.  It  is  the 
midland  through  which  pass  the  routes  that  connect  Copen- 
hagen on  the  north  with  Rome  on  the  south,  Petrograd 


144 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


An  electric  railway  in  Germany. 


in  the  northeast  with  Lisbon  in  the  southwest,  Constanti- 
nople in  the  southeast  with  London  in  the  northwest. 
Almost  any  city  in  Europe  can  be  reached  from  Berlin 
within  twenty-four  hours.  Germany's  position  in  the  heart 
of  the  continent  gives  her  great  railroad  advantages  for 
European  trade  over  her  nearest  rivals,  England  and  France. 

Bagdad  Railroad.  —  Because  Germany  supported  Turkey 
at  a  time  when  she  was  in  trouble,  the  Sultan  gave  the  Ger- 
mans the  right  to  build  a  railroad  to  the  Persian  Gulf  by 
way  of  Bagdad.  By  means  of  it  German  freight  cars  can 
reach  the  Persian  Gulf  by  way  of  Berlin,  Vienna,  Constanti- 
nople, and  Bagdad  without  unloading.  This  gives  ex- 
traordinary facihties  for  oriental  trade. 

Postal  Service.  —  Not  until  after  1830  was  any  provision 
made  by  the  government  to  give  mail  service  to  the  rural 
population  living  in  remote  villages.     The  farmers  had  to 


MODERN   GERMANY  145 

carry  their  mail  to  and  from  the  nearest  post  office  town. 
Shortly  before  i860  letters  were  delivered  daily,  except 
Sunday,  to  all  parts  of  the  country,  but  the  villages  had  an 
extra  rural  delivery  assessment  to  pay.  This  was  abol- 
ished in  187 1.  Since  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
mail  has  been  deHvered  every  day,  including  Sunday,  in 
every  city,  town,  and  hamlet  of  Germany.  Formerly  the 
postage  on  a  letter  depended  on  the  distance  it  traveled. 
In  1868  this  was  changed  to  a  uniform  cost  of  about  two 
cents  for  every  ordinary  letter.  The  number  of  letters 
delivered  increased  from  an  average  of  three  for  each 
person  in  1850  to  more  than  seventy  in  1905.  For  many 
years  Germany  has  had  a  cheap  and  excellent  parcel  post. 

Foreign  Commerce.  —  The  foreign  commerce  of  Germany 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  United  States.  Her  imports, 
considerably  greater  than  her  exports,  are  raw  cotton  and 
wool,  barley  and  wheat,  hides  and  skins,  eggs  and  butter, 
petroleum,  and  precious  metals.  The  chief  exports  are 
cloth  and  clothing,  iron  and  steel  goods,  machinery  and 
instruments,  leather  goods,  sugar,  chemical  products, 
books,  and  maps.  Germany  receives  more  imports  from 
Russia  and  the  United  States  than  from  any  other  two 
countries,  and  sends  more  exports  to  Great  Britain  than 
to  any  other  country. 

Germany's  Continental  Trade.  —  Germany  has  an  ex- 
tensive trade  with  her  European  neighbors.  Rich  coun- 
tries, Hke  Austria-Hungary  and  Russia,  form  a  large  part 
of  her  boundary  line.  For  the  most  part,  plains  or  low 
mountain  passes  give  her  easy  railroad  entrance  into  adja- 
cent countries.  The  rivers,  too,  form  trade  routes  into  other 
lands ;  for  example,  the  Rhine  into  Holland,  the  Vistula 
into    Russia,    and    the    Danube     into    Austria-Hungary. 


146  THREE   INDUSTRI.\L   NATIONS 

Russia  sends  her  rye,  wheat,  lumber,  eggs,  oats,  flax,  live 
poultry,  and  furs;  from  Austria-Hungary  she  receives 
soft  coal,  lumber,  cattle,  and  fruits.  In  return,  Ger- 
many sends  these  countries  hard  coal,  coke,  paper,  woolen 
and  cotton  cloth,  iron  manufactures,  machinery,  dyestuffs, 
leather,  books,  and  musical  instruments. 

Germany's  Ocean  Commerce.  —  Seventy  per  cent  of 
Germany's  foreign  trade  passes  over  the  ocean ;  and 
German  ships  sail  on  all  seas  of  the  globe.  A  specialty 
is  made  of  transatlantic  business  with  the  Americas  and 
Africa,  carried  by  two  of  the  largest  steamship  companies 
in  the  world,  the  North  German  Lloyd  with  headquarters 
at  Bremen,  and  the  Hamburg-American  Line  centered  at 
Hamburg.  German  imports  and  exports  are  carried  also 
through  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  the  Suez  Canal,  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  the  Pacific  to  or  from  Asia  and  Australia. 

German  Ships.  —  German  steamships  are  constantly 
increasing  in  size  and  capacity.  Large  Rhine  steamers 
carried  400  tons  in  1840 ;  800  tons  in  1880 ;  and  2000  tons 
in  1900.  One  modern  Lloyd  ocean  steamer  has  a  greater 
tonnage  than  the  entire  merchant  marine  of  Bremen  in 
1825.  Iron  and  steel  ships  are  displacing  wooden  sailing 
vessels.  Nevertheless  Germany  is  still  building  huge 
five-mast  saiHng  ships.  One  of  them  carries  a  tonnage 
equal  to  twenty-five  trains  of  thirty-one  freight  cars  each. 

World-wide  German  Interests.  —  Germany  is  compelled 
to  take  the  entire  world  as  her  commercial  field  because  her 
large  population  is  increasing  nearly  1,000,000  a  year. 
There  is  not  land  enough  to  farm,  so  the  people  must  make 
a  living  by  manufacturing  and  trading.  The  Germans 
search  every  quarter  of  the  globe  for  opportunities  in 
industry  and  commerce.     They  own  vast  areas  in  Brazil, 


MODERN   GERMANY  147 

and  thousands  of  miles  of  railway  in  Turkey  and  Asia 
Minor.  They  do  great  transportation  and  electrical  busi- 
ness in  South  American  cities.  They  own  coffee  planta- 
tions in  Central  America ;  mines  and  railways  in  China ; 
tobacco  plantations  in  Sumatra ;  cotton  plantations  in 
Egypt,  and  rubber  plantations  in  the  Congo. 

Business  houses  compete  with  one  another  in  developing 
foreign  commerce.  One  firm  owns  large  mining  interests, 
extensive  plantations,  and  ranches  in  Morocco.  Other 
firms  conduct  steel  mills  and  iron  mines  in  Scandinavia, 
Russia,  and  France. 

German  banks  furnish  money  with  which  foreign  business 
is  developed.  One  bank  is  building  the  Bagdad  railway; 
another  has  charge  of  the  railways  in  Venezuela.  Even 
the  Kaiser  is  interested  in  a  trust  that  spares  no  efforts  to 
gain  industrial  opportunities  abroad. 

The  Rapid  Growth  of  Cities.  —  As  a  result  of  the  mar- 
velous manufacturing  and  commercial  activity,  German 
cities  have  had  an  unusually  rapid  growth.  The  old  city 
walls,  which  formerly  protected  many  a  town,  have  long 
been  unable  to  hold  the  increasing  numbers  of  people  who 
have  flocked  from  rural  sections.  Hundreds  of  cities  have 
large  districts,  stretching  beyond  the  original  limits.  The 
old  buildings,  streets,  walls,  and  bridges  contrast  strangely 
with  the  modern  sections  of  these  cities. 

Berlin.  —  Berlin,  the  fifth  largest  city  in  the  world,  is 
one  of  the  most  important  railroad  centers  of  Europe  and 
one  of  the  chief  money  markets  on  the  globe.  It  lies  in 
the  northern  plain,  midway  between  the  coast  and  the 
southern  highlands,  near  both  the  Elbe  and  the  Oder. 
Rail,  river,  and  canal  connections  have  made  it  a  collector 
and  a  distributor  of  products  for  the  surrounding  country. 


148 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


MODERN    GERMANY 


149 


Although  Berlin  is  an  important  manufacturing  center,  it 
is  a  beautiful  city.  Broad  streets,  stately  palaces,  rich  shops, 
magnificent  hotels,  luxurious  houses,  and  wooded  parks 
stamp  it  at  once  as  one  of  the  great  capitals  of  the  world. 

In  Berhn  are  a  number  of  museums,  containing  inter- 
esting relics  from  all  continents.  Art  galleries  are  tilled 
with  hundreds  of  paintings  and  sculptures.  A  dozen  opera 
houses  and  more  theaters  provide  amusements.  Many 
concert  halls  furnish  excellent  musical  entertainments. 
The  Thiergarten  Park,  one  of  the  largest  in  Europe,  is  a 
happy  recreation  spot  for  thousands  of  people  from  early 
morning  until  evening.  In  it  are  countless  trees,  artificial 
fountains,  and  many  statues  and  busts  of  noted  rulers, 
scientists,  musicians,  artists,  and  poets. 

Every  kind  of  school  from  the  kindergarten  through  the 
University,  trade  and  professional  schools,  schools  for  un- 


The  Reichstag  Building,  Berlin. 


15° 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


The  Dresden  Museum. 


fortunates,  day  schools,  night  schools,  and  Sunday  schools 
offer  courses  of  education  to  all. 

Dresden  and  Munich.  —  The  wealthy  state  capitals 
Munich  and  Dresden  are  important  interior  trade  centers 
and  are  noted  especially  for  their  art  interests.  They  con- 
tain fine  galleries,  visited  by  thousands  of  tourists.  Many 
foreigners  study  art  and  music  in  these  cities.  The  most 
valuable  collection  of  treasures  in  Europe  is  to  be  found  in 
Dresden.  It  is  worth  millions  of  dollars  and  is  composed 
of  marvelously  wrought  bronzes,  finely  carved  ivory, 
beautiful  pictures,  watches,  goblets,  statues,  gold  and  silver 
plates,  priceless  emeralds,  rubies,  pearls,  and  diamonds ; 
rings,  swords,  and  other  articles  of  decoration  belonging 
to  former  kings.  Dresden  is  also  renowned  for  its  beauti- 
ful china. 

Munich  has  one  of  the  finest  industrial  museums  in  the 
world.  It  contains  wonderful  exhibits  showing  industrial 
processes  and  products.     After  one  has  spent  several  days 


MODERN   GERMANY 


151 


in  this  museum  he  has  a  profound  respect  for  the  indus- 
trial accomphshments  of  man. 

Hamburg  and  Bremen.  —  Quite  in  contrast  with  Dresden 
is  the  city  of  Hamburg,  the  greatest  continental  port  in 
Europe.  In  its  busy  harbor  are  hundreds  of  ships,  arrived 
from  many  foreign  ports.  The  city  is  on  the  Elbe,  far 
enough  inland  to  afford  a  fine  shelter  for  vessels.     Hamburg 


Docks  at  Hamburg. 

collects  the  larger  part  of  the  rich  industrial  products  of 
Germany  and  sends  them  out  to  other  European  ports,  to 
Asia,  Africa,  Australia,  South  America,  and  the  United 
States.  Ships  bring  in  tea  and  silk  from  China,  wool  from 
Australia,  rubber  and  ivory  from  Africa,  coffee  and  rubber 
from  Brazil ;  cotton,  corn,  wheat,  meat,  copper,  iron, 
petroleum  from  the  United  States ;  and  fruits  from  the 
Mediterranean  countries.      After  the  great  steamers  have 


152 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 


come  up  to  the  wharves,  the  bales  of  cotton  are  lifted  by 
pulleys,  cranes,  and  derricks  directly  into  the  warehouses. 
Other  products  are  transferred  at  once  into  boats  and 
carried  up  the  canals  and  rivers  to  interior  sections,  or 
they  are  loaded  into  freight  cars.  Bremen,  the  second 
port  of  Germany,  handles  the  bulk  of  the  emigrant  traffic. 
It  is  also  a  large  tobacco,  cotton,  and  rice  market. 

Leipzig,  one  of  the  chief  manufacturing  cities  of  Germany, 
can  boast  of  being  the  greatest  book  center  of  the  world.  It 
has  excellent  printing  schools  where  type-making,  illustrat- 
ing, photography,  and  engraving  are  taught.  It  is  also 
one  of  the  world's  chief  markets  for  furs,  pelts,  and  wool. 

Other  Cities.  —  Dozens  of  other  rich  and  thriving  cities 
might  be  mentioned.     There  is  Cologne  on  the  Rhine,  with 


The  Cologne  Cathedral. 


MODERN   GERMANY  1 53 

its  famous  cathedral  and  noted  perfumes;  Nuremberg, 
with  its  toys;  Mainz,  the  birthplace  of  Gutenberg,  who 
invented  printing;  and  ever  so  many  cotton,  woolen,  iron, 
and  steel  centers.  In  all  of  them  one  sees  the  hurry  and 
bustle  of  business,  and  the  contentment  that  blesses  men 
who  have  found  their  work. 

Conclusion.  —  The  industrial  revolution  in  Germany 
has  brought  about  many  benehcial  results.  The  material 
wealth  of  individuals  has  been  much  increased.  Greater 
freedom  of  thought  has  been  developed.  Even  the  peasants 
are  daring  to  think  for  themselves.  Civic  pride  has  been 
wonderfully  promoted.  The  nation  has  gained  not  merely 
physical  prosperity,  but  also  political  recognition  from  the 
great  world  powers.  American  citizens  of  German  descent 
are  proud  that  their  forefathers  came  from  Germany. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Why  is  it  that  more  people  can  be  supported  by  manu- 
facturing than  by  agriculture? 

2.  What  are  the  two  greatest  industrial  resources  of  Ger- 
many? 

3.  Why  are  there  so  few  cities  in  northeastern  Germany? 
Why  are  the  manufacturing  cities  so  well  distributed  ? 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  names  of  articles  on  which  you  find  the 
trade-mark  "Made  in  Germany." 

5.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  German  forest  conservation. 

6.  How  does  British  commerce  differ  from  that  of  Germany  ? 

7.  Hamburg  is  the  chief  seaport  of  Europe,  although  it  is 
not  on  the  coast.  How  has  its  commercial  supremacy  been 
made  possible  ? 


CHAPTER  XI 

POLITICAL  AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS   IN   MODERN 
GERMANY 

Government  of  Germany.  —  Germany  is  a  limited  mon- 
archy. While  the  nation  consists  of  a  number  of  states, 
each  with  its  own  state  government,  yet  the  national 
government  is  very  strong  and  exercises  large  power  over 
the  whole  country.  Affairs  of  universal  interest,  such  as 
postage  and  coinage,  are  in  charge  of  the  national  govern- 
ment instead  of  the  individual  states,  as  formerly  they  were. 
Practically  all  of  the  railways  and  telegraphs  are  owned 
by  the  government,  and  they  are  well  managed.  The  gov- 
ernment is  untiring  in  its  efforts  to  develop  the  German 
nation.  Laws  are  passed  to  promote  education,  manufac- 
turing, commerce,  and  every  other  interest  of  the  people. 
Germany's  government  plays  the  part  of  a  kind,  thought- 
ful father  to  his  children.  No  wonder  the  people  call  the 
country  "  Dear  Fatherland." 

The  Ruler.  —  Emperor  Wilhelm  II  is  the  ruler  of  this 
limited  monarchy.  He  inherited  the  throne  from  his  father 
in  1888.  Kaiser  Wilhelm,  as  he  is  known  in  Germany,  is 
an  intelligent  man  of  great  power  and  ambition.  He  is 
striving  with  all  his  power  to  expand  Germany's  influence 
on  the  ocean.  During  his  reign,  his  country  has  made  mar- 
velous progress  through  his  efforts.  No  wonder  the  people 
are  proud  of  their  ruler. 

The  Law  Makers.  —  Although  the  emperor  holds  his 
position  for  life,  he  is  controlled  in  his  actions  by  the  law 
makers.     He  cannot  pass  a  single  law  himself.     For  that 

154 


POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL    CONDITIONS 


155 


purpose  two  bodies  of  men  are  elected.  The  Bundesrath 
has  about  sixty  members,  chosen  by  the  governments  of 
the  states.  The  Reichstag,  composed  of  about  four  hun- 
dred men,  is  chosen  by  the  people  voting  directly,  as  our 
Representatives  are.  Formerly,  these  law  makers  very 
humbly  carried  out  the  Kaiser's  wishes.  But  in  late  years 
the  people  of  Germany  have  come  to  take  greater  interest 
in  politics  and  to  demand  a  greater  share  in  solving  the 
affairs  of  the  nation. 

Care  in  Making  Laws.  —  German  laws  are  planned  and 
framed  with  the  utmost  care  by  learned  men  who  are 
masters  in  the  field  of  knowledge  to  which  the  law  applies. 
German  legislators  are  ashamed  to  make  a  law  without 
careful  previous  investigation  into  all  matters  pertaining  to 
it.  They  are  frequently  assisted  by  university  professors, 
scientists,  and  men  of  large  business  experience.  Public 
duties  are  executed  with  the  same  care ;   and  officials  take 


A  trading  post  in  German  East  Africa. 


156 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


great  pride  in  their  positions  of  trust.  Office  holders  are 
usually  men  of  middle  life  who  have  had  broad  experi- 
ence. Some  of  them  are  sufficiently  well-to-do  to  serve 
the  government  without  salary. 

German  Suffrage.  —  The  right  to  vote  has  been  greatly 
extended.  Formerly,  serfs  had  no  political  privileges. 
The  ballot  could  be  used  only  by 
freemen.  Little  by  little,  one  class 
of  society  after  another  acquired  at 
least  partial  voting  power.  Univer- 
sal suffrage  was  granted  to  all  male 
adults  by  the  close  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  But  even  to-day  this  priv- 
ilege is  not  an  equal  one  for  all  men. 
The  votes  of  the  various  classes,  with 
the  exception  of  the  highest,  have  only 
fractional  values.  While  every  man 
can  vote,  some  ballots  are  counted 
as  three  fifths  or  two  fifths  of  a  vote, 
while  others  are  worth  five  fifths. 
Colonial  Possessions.  —  When  in  1884  Germany  began 
to  realize  her  overcrowded  condition,  she  studied  the  map 
of  the  world  for  unclaimed  land.  But  it  was  too  late.  The 
best  places  had  already  been  taken  by  England  and  France. 
She,  however,  acquired  colonial  possessions  in  Africa  — 
Togoland,  Kamerun,  German  Southwest  Africa,  and  Ger- 
man East  Africa.  These  colonies  He  mostly  in  the  tropical 
regions,  and  are  not  very  satisfactory.  German  colonists 
accustomed  to  the  temperate  zone  do  not  fare  well  in  torrid 
regions.  Nevertheless,  the  government  encourages  the 
development  of  these  colonies  as  a  source  of  supply  for  the 
mother  country.     The  imports  from  them  into  Germany 


A  native  using  tiie  tele- 
phone, German  East 
Africa. 


POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS 


157 


are  rubber,  palm  oil,  cotton,  and  cattle.  The  exports  from 
the  mother  country  to  her  African  colonies  are  textiles, 
ironware,  and  tobacco. 

In  1898,  Germany  secured  a  ninety-nine  years'  lease  of 
Kiauchau  Bay  on  the  east  Chinese  coast,  with  special  com- 
mercial privileges  in  the  adjoining  province.  This  gives 
her  a  valuable  trading  post  on  the  Asiatic  coast  of  the 


German  soldiers. 

Pacific.  She  hopes  in  time  to  have  it  rival  the  English 
station,  Hong  Kong.  In  recent  years  Germany  has 
acquired  a  number  of  islands  in  the  Pacific  which  are  used 
as  stations  for  the  growing  navy  and  for  the  benefit  of 
foreign  trade. 

The  German  Army.  —  Seven  enterprising  nations  sur- 
round Germany ;  and  due  to  conflicting  interests  or  inter- 
national ill  will,  war  may  easily  occur  between  Germany 


158 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Making  cannons,  Krupp  works,  Germany. 

and  one  or  more  of  the  neighboring  countries.  In  1871 
the  Germans  took  provinces  from  France.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  the  French  can  entirely  forget  their  former  posses- 
sions. In  eastern  Germany  is  a  province  called  Poland 
which,  with  a  large  tract  in  Russia  about  the  size  of  the 
state  of  New  York,  was  an  independent  kingdom  until 
Russia  and  Prussia  made  war  upon  it  and  divided  it  be- 
tween themselves.  It  will  be  long  before  the  Poles  will 
have  forgotten  their  freedom. 

Such  conditions  make  it  necessary  to  have  a  large  army, 
well  disciplined  and  ready  to  march  against  any  enemy  at 
any  time.  Germany  has  over  4000  miles  of  land  boundary, 
along  which  there  are  enormous  fortresses  and  military  camps 
suppHed  with  ammunition,  and  guarded  by  expert  soldiers. 
Men  are  being  trained  daily  in  the  art  of  war.  In  a  very 
short  time  3,000,000  soldiers  could  be  placed  in  the  field. 


POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS 


159 


Germany  makes  a  scientific  business  of  being  prepared 
for  war.  Her  standing  army  in  time  of  peace,  including 
infantry,  artillery,  special  railway  and  train  forces,  is  the 
second  largest  in  the  world,  numbering  over  600,000.  She 
keeps  her  army  thoroughly  trained  and  looks  carefully  after 
their  health.  In  time  of  war,  soldiers  can  be  transported 
at  short  notice  from  any  part  of  the  country  to  the  forti- 


A  Zeppelin,  a  German  war  balloon. 


fications  by  the  railroads  which  are  controlled  by  the 
government.  As  soon  as  there  is  the  least  indication  of 
trouble  with  any  country,  every  officer  receives  sealed 
instructions  as  to  just  what  he  is  to  do  in  case  of  a  declara- 
tion of  war.  All  the  railway  agents  receive  similar  enve- 
lopes with  orders  as  to  the  number  of  trains  that  must  be 
ready  for  the  soldiers  at  specified  stations.  When  war 
is  declared,  the  envelopes  are  opened  and  the  directions  are 


i6o 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


A  Zeppelin  in  shed. 


promptly  obeyed.     Secret  underground  telegraphs  connect 
Berlin  and  the  various  state  capitals  with  the  fortresses. 

Every  able-bodied  youth  must  serve  one  or  two  years 
in  the  regular  standing  army.  In  time  of  war  the  govern- 
ment can  draft  into  service  every  normal  man  between 
the  ages  of  seventeen  and  forty-five.  Formerly  there  was 
considerable  rebellion  against  this  compulsory  service,  and 
many  fine  young  men  emigrated  to  America  to  avoid  it. 

But  now  most  Ger- 
mans take  such  pride 
in  the  Fatherland 
that  they  gladly  give 
a  year  or  two  of  their 
young  manhood. 
While  the  country 
loses  the  labor  of  the 
standing  army  in  the  industries,  the  protection  to  them  in 
case  of  war  makes  the  cost  worth  while.  At  least,  the 
Germans  think  so. 

The  German  Navy.  —  In  order  to  protect  her  trading 
interests,  which  she  has  in  every  continent,  Germany  needs 
a  well-equipped  navy,  similar  to  that  of  England.  It  has 
been  only  a  few  years  since  she  realized  this,  but  in  that 
short  time  she  has  worked  vigorously,  building  three  dread- 
naughts  a  year.  Until  recently  she  occupied  the  fourth  place 
among  the  world's  navies ;  but  now  her  navy  ranks  second, 
having  surpassed  the  United  States  and  France  since  1910. 
Home  Life.  —  Probably  there  is  no  nation  in  which  home 
life  is  so  dear  to  the  people  as  it  is  in  Germany.  The 
happiest  hours  are  those  which  parents  and  children  spend 
together.  Germany  was  the  first  home  of  the  Christmas 
tree,  and  the  Christmas  season  is  made  much  of,  in  giving 


POLITICAL  AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS 


i6i 


joy  to  others.  The  members  of  the  family  remember  one 
another  with  loving  presents.  While  there  are  many 
toys,  there  are  also  useful  presents.  The  children  usually 
give  their  parents  the  presents  which  they  call  gifts  of  tal- 
ents. This  is  a  pleasant  custom  of  giving  parents  pleasure 
through  the  use  of 
some  new  power 
which  the  child  has 
gained  during  the 
year.  Even  the 
smallest  member  of 
the  family  can  do 
something.  The 
little  girls  play  fairy 
tale  tableaus  of  Cin- 
derella or  Red  Rid- 
ing Hood ;  or  they 
give  mother  a  new 
ironholder  which 
they  sewed  them- 
selves, or  read  an 
interesting  story  to 
father.  One  of  the  sons  may  play  a  new  selection  on  the 
piano,  another  an  air  on  the  violin.  Perhaps  one  of  the 
daughters  will  recite  a  beautiful  poem.  These  gifts  of 
talent  are  more  appreciated  by  the  parents  than  presents 
bought  with  money. 

Recreations.  —  The  many  art  galleries  and  museums 
afford  profitable  recreation  on  Sundays  and  holidays.  The 
low  priced  but  excellent  plays,  operas,  and  concerts  con- 
tribute to  the  general  enjoyment.  In  winter  the  skating 
ponds  are  visited  by  young  and  old.     In  spring,  summer, 


A  park  in  Berlin. 


l62 


THREE   INDUSTRI.\L   NATIONS 


and  autumn  every  one  goes  walking  and  spends  many  half 
holidays  with  nature.  Countless  happy  hours  are  spent 
in  city  parks.  The  German  parks  serve  as  models  for  study 
by  interested  Americans. 

For  a  long  time  Germany  has  been  noted  for  her  poetry 
and   music.     Many  of  her  poems  and   songs  have   been 

translated    into    other 
languages,  and  appear 
in     our    readers    and 
song     books.      Such 
names     as     Schubert, 
Beethoven,      Wagner, 
Goethe,    and    Schiller 
are    familiar    to    most 
of    us.     Few    nations 
love  singing  as  do  the 
Germans.     They  seem 
to    be    in    their   glory 
when    they    sing  their 
patriotic      songs.       It 
is  no  uncommon  thing 
for   men    who  happen 
to  meet  at  an  inn  or 
a    restaurant  to  while 
away  the  evening    by 
singing  for  an  hour  or  more.     Goethe,  the  German  poet, 
once  said  that  one  should  read  a  beautiful  poem,  sing  a  fine 
song,  look  at  a  good  picture,  or  Hsten  to  sweet  music  every 
day.     Many  of  his  countrymen  follow  his  advice.     Perhaps 
that  is  one  reason  why  Germans  have  so  great  an  apprecia- 
tion of  pure,  simple  enjoyments ;  and  why  there  is  a  certain 
quiet  contentedness  among  them. 


Goethe  and  Schiller  statue. 


J 


POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS  163 

Material  Welfare  of  the  People.  —  The  industrial  prog- 
ress in  Germany  has  brought  great  improvement  in  the 
material  conditions  of  the  German  people.  Men  are  free 
to  choose  the  occupations  they  desire.  There  is  more 
wealth,  and  the  people  enjoy  greater  physical  comforts 
than  ever  before.  Sanitary  regulations  have  made  cities, 
factories,  and  houses  more  healthful ;  and  labor  laws  care- 
fully protect  the  life  and  strength  of  the  toilers. 

Freedom  of  Occupation.  —  Each  person  can  choose  the 
occupation  for  which  he  is  best  adapted.  Instead  of  being 
bound  by  iron-clad  laws  to  serve  a  given  master  for  a  fixed 
period  at  a  fitted  wage,  men  can  go  wherever  the  demands 
for  labor  promise  the  best  rewards.  They  move  not  only 
from  the  country  to  the  city,  but  from  one  city  to  another, 
in  response  to  the  call  of  industry.  This  has  brought  about 
increased  restlessness  and  higher  wages.  Owing  to  the  mov- 
ing spirit,  the  German  races  of  the  various  parts  of  the  em- 
pire have  become  mixed  in  marriage,  which,  in  turn,  has 
helped  to  strengthen  the  feeling  of  national  brotherhood. 
The  spirit  of  change  has  taken  such  a  hold  upon  the  people 
that  labor  now  is  in  danger  of  becoming  too  restless.  To 
counteract  the  moving  habit,  some  firms  are  granting  short 
annual  vacations  with  pay  to  those  workingmen  who  have 
been  in  their  employ  for  a  certain  number  of  3Tars. 

Accumulated  Capital.  —  Industrial  progress  has  given 
Germany  great  accumulated  capital.  In  1850  she  had  to 
borrow  money  to  develop  home  industries.  To-day,  she  has 
great  sums  invested  in  foreign  securities  and  enterprises. 
Factories,  farms,  mines,  warehouses,  and  schools  under 
German  control  are  scattered  widely  in  many  foreign  lands. 

Wages.  —  The  wages  of  German  workers  have  increased 
more  rapidly  than  the  cost  of  living  has  risen.     As  a  result 


164 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 


there  has  been  greater  comfort  and  less  emigration.  All 
classes  in  Germany,  including  the  lowliest  laborers,  enjoy 
daily  comforts  which  years  ago  were  not  even  dreamed  of 
as  luxuries.  The  homes  are  far  more  comfortable.  Sub- 
stantial brick  or  stone  houses,  well  lighted  and  heated,  are 
taking  the  place  of  poorly  ventilated  wooden  structures 


German  workingmen's  cottages. 

of  by-gone  days.  The  wages  among  the  working  classes 
are  rather  evenly  distributed ;  hence,  even  the  most  pros- 
perous among  them  are  -not  as  well-to-do  as  the  same  class 
of  people  are  in  England  or  America.  Germany  might  be 
called  the  land  of  average  well-being ;  for,  generally  speak- 
ing, both  the  very  poor  and  the  very  rich  are  missing. 

Working   Hours  and   Workingmen's   Insurance.  —  The 
German  laborers  work  ten  hours  a  day,  while  those  of  the 


POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS  165 

United  States  work  only  eight ;  but  the  former  work  more 
slowly,  have  a  longer  noon  intermission,  besides  a  short 
rest  in  the  middle  of  each  half  day.  Machinery  is  not  run 
at  such  high  pressure  or  so  continuously  as  with  us.  The 
work  is  less  tense  and  more  steady.  Insurance  laws  pro- 
tect the  working  classes  in  sickness,  accidents,  and  old 
age.  Every  wage  earner  must  carry  an  insurance  as  soon 
as  he  begins  to  earn  a  living.  He  pays  a  part  of  the  pre- 
miums, the  government  gives  some  aid,  and  the  employers 
are  compelled  to  meet  part  of  the  insurance  expenses. 

Factory  Conditions.  —  Every  employer  must  run  his 
factory  strictly  according  to  the  law,  which  requires  clean- 
liness and  sanitary  conditions,  good  light,  and  pure  air. 
Oftentimes  shower  baths  are  provided,  or  at  least  basins 
where  the  face  and  hands  may  be  washed  before  the  work- 
man leaves  for  home.  Where  very  dirty  work  is  required, 
opportunity  is  given  to  change  the  clothing  mornings  and 
evenings.  Every  factory  must  post  the  rules  of  the  house 
in  a  conspicuous  place  where  the  factory  inspector  who 
comes  around  at  regular  intervals  can  see  them.  This 
schedule  includes  among  other  things  the  hours  of  labor, 
the  mealtimes,  time  and  manner  of  paying  wages,  punish- 
ments, and  fines.  The  inspector  must  see  to  it  that  these 
rules  are  according  to  the  law  and  that  they  are  properly 
obeyed. 

The  Labor  of  Women  and  Children.  —  The  health  of  a 
nation  depends  so  much  upon  the  women  and  children  that 
special  provisions  are  made  for  them.  For  example,  no 
woman  is  allowed  to  work  in  a  factory  at  night.  Children 
less  than  thirteen  cannot  be  employed  at  all ;  and  after 
that,  only  for  a  limited  number  of  hours,  ranging  from  six 
to  ten  per  day,  according  to  the  age. 


1 66  THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

Public  Provisions  for  General  Welfare.  —  The  state 
and  city  authorities  give  the  greatest  attention  to  good 
water  supply,  the  proper  disposal  of  garbage  and  sewage, 
the  cleaning  and  lighting  of  streets,  and  the  checking  of 
disease.  Many  provisions  are  made  for  the  comfort  of 
the  helpless  and  defectives.  Pubhc  parks  and  museums 
are  agencies  for  promoting  the  health  and  happiness  of  the 
people.  The  crowding  of  many  famiUes  into  the  tenement 
houses  of  the  factory  towns  is  detrimental  to  public  welfare. 
To  overcome  this  difficulty,  various  government  authorities 
have,  within  recent  years,  helped  to  build  good  sanitary 
houses  for  workingmen.  These  are  sold  at  reasonable 
prices,  on  long-time  payments,  and  at  low  interest  rates. 
Provisions  are  also  made  to  loan  money  on  very  easy  terms 
to  capable  young  farmers  that  they  may  get  proper  tools, 
animals,  and  fertilizers.  All  these  things  help  to  produce 
a  happier  and  better  race  of  people. 

Education.  —  For  over  a  hundred  years  this  nation  has 
given  much  attention  to  educating  her  people.  After  a 
serious  defeat  of  Prussia  by  the  French  in  1806,  King  Fred- 
erick Wilhelm  said  :  "  The  state  must  regain  by  intellectual 
power  what  she  has  lost  in  material  power,  and  to  this  end 
I  desire  that  everything  may  be  done  to  extend  and  perfect 
the  education  of  the  people."  Great  statesmen,  philoso- 
phers, and  educators  labored  unceasingly  during  the  dark 
hours  of  Germany's  history  to  impress  the  people  with  the 
fact  that  their  future  success  could  only  be  assured  through 
a  thorough  training  of  the  youth  of  all  classes.  After  the 
victory  of  187 1,  the  nation  again  put  its  best  energies  into 
educating  the  young  people  in  the  arts  of  peace.  Besides 
the  common  and  high  schools,  and  the  universities,  schools 
were  established  for  the  teaching  of  almost  every  trade. 


POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS  167 


Buildings  of  the  University  of  Berlin. 

The  boys  and  girls  who  leave  school  at  fourteen  years  of 
age  must  attend  a  continuation  school  several  hours  a  week, 
usually  after  working  hours ;  that  is,  after  supper  or  on 
Sunday  morning,  to  learn  more  about  German  composi- 
tion, reading,  arithmetic,  and  mechanical  drawing.  They 
also  study  physics,  chemistry,  simple  mechanics,  civics, 
hygiene,  and  a  little  about  the  laws  relating  to  the  various 
industries. 

In  commercial  schools  they  learn  business  correspondence, 
how  to  write  checks,  postal  money  orders,  receipts,  bills 
of  lading,  and  telegrams.  Bookkeeping  and  commercial 
geography  are  also  studied.  Some  of  the  special  trade 
schools  are  those  for  printers,  metal  and  leather  workers, 
builders,  tailors,  farmers,  and  dentists.  Cooking,  stenog- 
raphy, bookkeeping,  sewing,  and  millinery  are  taught  in 
girls'  schools.  Besides  the  textile  or  cloth-weaving  schools 
there  are  those  that  teach  knitting,  engineering,  mining, 
navigation,    and    shipbuilding.      Advanced    high    schools 


1 68  THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

educate  the  managers  of  factories  and  steamship  com- 
panies, the  heads  of  museums,  wholesale  merchants,  and 
representatives  to  foreign  countries ;  in  short,  all  captains 
of  industry.  The  highest  type  of  school  trains  the  ablest 
men  to  discover  new  chemical  products,  or  improved 
methods  in  industry. 

Commercial  Geography.  —  The  study  of  commercial 
geography  receives  much  attention.  The  Germans  know 
all  about  the  products  of  other  nations  and  their  needs. 
They  investigate  the  possibilities  of  opening  up  trade  rela- 
tions with  foreigners,  and  are  quick  to  seize  the  opportunity 
of  increasing  their  own  business.  Museums  of  the  prod- 
ucts and  other  material  wealth  of  foreign  countries  are 
scattered  all  over  Germany.  Other  museums  contain 
exhibits  of  the  highest  class  of  workmanship  in  metals, 
wood,  clay,  cloth,  and  glass  found  anywhere  in  the  world. 
These  are  really  schools  of  instruction  to  all  who  care  to 
learn. 

Study  of  Foreign  Languages.  —  German  students  learn 
three  or  four  languages.  Traveling  salesmen  make  a  point 
of  offering  their  goods  to  foreigners  in  the  native  tongue 
of  the  customers.  This  pleases  buyers  and  increases  sales. 
Another  advantage  of  a  knowledge  of  foreign  languages  is 
that  it  enables  Germans  to  read  the  trade  papers  of  their 
rivals. 

Conclusion.  —  The  industrial  progress  of  Germany  since 
the  formation  of  the  nation  in  187 1  has  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  whole  world.  The  Greater  Germany  of  to-day 
is  the  result  of  many  successful  struggles  against  enormous 
diflficulties,  and  of  the  intelligent  use  of  every  resource. 
An  increasing  population  compelled  the  nation  to  turn 
to  manufacturing  and  commerce.     Rich  mines  of  iron  and 


POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS 


169 


coal  have  made  possible  the  great  manufacturing  indus- 
tries, and  German  ships  have  carried  German  commerce 
to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Their  methods  of  scientific  re- 
search and  their  industry  have  made  them  great  manufac- 
turers. Their  success  is  due  also  to  their  physical  vigor. 
They  have  great  power  of  endurance.  A  rather  severe 
cHmate  and  a  stubborn  soil  have  taught  them  to  toil  hard 


One  of  the  largest  German  passenger  ships. 


lyo  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

and  patiently.  The  long  struggle  with  nature  for  an  exist- 
ence has  given  them  a  hardihood  that  is  of  great  advantage 
in  industries  that  demand  both  physical  and  mental  vigor. 
German  ships  carry  German  products  to  all  countries, 
and  bring  back  raw  material  for  the  factories  of  Germany. 
These  ships  carry  not  only  German  exports  and  imports, 
but  also  do  a  large  amount  of  ocean  commerce  for  many 
other  countries.  The  German  Emperor  has  said :  "  The 
future  of  Germany  lies  on  the  ocean ;  "  and  it  is  the  ambi- 
tion of  this  powerful  nation  to  secure  a  still  larger  part  of 
the  world's  commerce. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Germany  is  anxious  to  maintain  her  present  friendly  rela- 
tions with  the  United  States.  What  bearing  has  American 
friendship  on  her  manufactures  and  commerce?  Of  what 
advantage  is  Germany's  friendship  to  us? 

2.  The  Germans  think  that  a  ten- hour  working  day,  with 
three  intermissions  and  especially  a  long  noon  rest,  is  better 
for  promoting  health  than  an  eight-hour  day,  with  only  one 
short  midday  recess.     What  do  you  think  about  it? 

3.  What  does  the  home  life  have  to  do  with  the  greatness 
of  a  nation? 

4.  In  what  way  is  the  love  of  outdoor  life  among  a  people 
a  national  advantage? 

5.  Germany  withdraws  several  hundred  thousand  young 
men  annually  from  the  industrial  ranks  in  order  to  have  a  large 
standing  army.  Discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  such  an  arrangement  to  the  nation  and  to  the  individuals. 

6.  In  what  ways  is  the  government  of  Germany  like  that  of 
the  United  States?     In  what  ways  is  it  different? 

7.  What  to  your  mind  is  the  greatest  cause  of  Germany's 
remarkable  progress  in  the  last  fifty  years  ? 


POLITICAL   AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS  171 

8.  What  have  the  wages   of  workingmen  to   do  with  the 
conservation  of  human  life? 

9.  Germany    has  gained  possessions    in  Africa    and    Asia. 
Why  not  in  Australia  ?     In  North  America  and  South  America  ? 

ID.  Why  do  the  Germans  not  settle  extensively  in  the  colonial 
possessions  of  Germany  ? 

11.  How  does  Germany  prepare  her  young  men  for  a  com- 
mercial career  ? 

12.  Name  some  of  the  regulations  that  provide  for  the  well- 
being  of  the  German  workingmen. 


The  United  States 
is  the  industrial  peer  of 
the  German  and  British  Empires : 
What  causes  have  contributed  to  her 
rapid    development,    and    along 
what  lines  has  this  advance- 
ment been  made  ? 


172 


THE  YOUNG  INDUSTRIAL  GIANT 
OF  THE  WEST 


OUR   OWN   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

Within  four  centuries  the  United  States  has  been  changed 
from  an  unknown  wilderness  into  one  of  the  three  leading 
powers,  holding  an  honorable  place  by  the  side  of  much 
older  nations.  After  the  discovery  of  America  more  than  a 
century  elapsed  before  a  permanent  settlement  was  made. 
More  than  another  hundred  years  passed  after  that  before 
the  last  of  the  original  thirteen  colonies  was  established. 
Not  until  1776  did  the  United  States  come  into  being. 
Hence  our  wonderful  development  has  been  achieved  in 
less  than  one  hundred  fifty  years  of  national  existence. 

We  have  accomplished  much  in  a  short  time.  But  we 
must  not  forget  that  we  owe  no  little  part  of  this  rapid  devel- 
opment to  our  inheritance  from  older  nations.  The  expe- 
rience of  their  European  ancestors  served  to  guide  our 
forefathers  in  the  formation  and  establishment  of  our 
government.  Our  schools  and  churches  are  offshoots  of 
tried  systems.  The  inventions  of  the  Old  World  were  early 
applied  to  American  industries.  .Our  language,  the  most 
powerful  factor  in  welding  our  national  unity,  came  from 
beyond  the  Atlantic.  Ours  has  been  the  combined  heri- 
tage of   all  the  civilizations  that  have  preceded  us. 

173 


L.L,  POATES  CO.,    N.V 


174 


-.-/-.  A       Tampa          c,    '"X    i                 V 

"^^      °^      KKxroo  t^\l^^^^^ 

POLITICAL  MAP  \V  Jl  f     „     ,,.    S 

OK  THE  511- 

UNITED  STATES  Ke.^^C-:>l         ^A    ,;.,.V 

SCALE  OF  MILES  JMoT                                   jjl-----*'    \ 

0            100         200         300         too         500  ^             ---I--- 


7 


^/i 


CHAPTER   XII 
NATURAL  ASSETS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

Favorable  geographic  conditions  have  had  much  to  do 
with  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  United  States.  Some 
of  the  chief  geographic  factors  are  advantageous  location, 
fertile  soil,  rich  mineral  supply,  favorable  climate,  excellent 
waterways,  and  extensive  forests. 

Position  and  Size.  — An  important  factor  in  the  progress 
of  the  United  States  is  its  position  directly  opposite  the 
most  highly  developed  continent,  separated  from  it  by  only 
3000  miles  of  the  Atlantic.  Our  country  is  much  nearer 
to  Europe  than  to  any  other  continent  of  the  Old  World. 
When  the  United  States  became  independent  in  1776  it 
extended  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Mississippi  River 
and  from  Canada  to  Florida.  Strip  after  strip  was  added 
to  it  until  to-day  it  extends  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
and  covers  3,686,785  square  miles.  It  is  larger  than  Aus- 
tralia and  little  smaller  than  Europe.  It  is  so  broad  from 
north  to  south  that  the  fastest  trains  require  about  thirty- 
six  hours  to  cover  the  distance.  It  is  so  long  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  that  the  speediest  trains  cannot  cross 
it  in  less  than  eighty-four  hours. 

Coastline.  —  North  America  ranks  next  to  Europe  in 
irregularity  of  coast,  and  the  United  States  has  over  3000 
miles  of  coasthne.  There  are  many  excellent  harbors. 
Most  of  them  border  on  the  Atlantic,  which  is  the  greatest 
highway  of  trade.  Others  are  on  the  Pacific,  which  may 
some  day  rival  the  Atlantic  in  commerce.  Fortunately  all 
our  seaports  are  ice-free  the  year  round. 

176 


NATURAL   ASSETS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


177 


Surface.  —  From  east  to  west,  the  United  States  is 
divided  into  four  great  natural  regions.  Along  the  Atlantic 
is  a  belt  of  lowland  called  the  Atlantic  Coast  Plain.  Farther 
west  is  the  Appalachian  Highland,  and  in  the  central  part 
of  the  country  is  the  Central  Plain.  The  western  third  of 
the  United  States  is  the  Cordilleran  Highland. 


Farm  land  in  the  Atlantic  Coast  Plain. 


Atlantic  Coast  Plain.  —  The  Atlantic  Coast  Plain  begins 
at  Cape  Cod  and  extends  to  Florida.  At  the  northern 
end  it  is  only  a  few  miles  wide,  but  it  widens  southward 
so  that  in  Georgia  it  is  about  300  miles  wide.  The  coast 
plain  bordering  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  called  the  Gulf 
Coast  Plain. 

Appalachian  Highland.  —  The  Appalachian  Highland 
extends  from  Newfoundland  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River 
to  northern  Alabama  and  Georgia.  The  New  England 
Plateau  is  part  of  this  highland  region.  Just  west  of  the 
Atlantic  Coast  Plain  is  a  plateau  belt  called  the  Piedmont 
Plateau.  This  is  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Appalachian 
Highland.  At  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Piedmont  belt  the 
surface  slopes  steeply  down  to  the  Atlantic  Coast  Plain, 
and  because  of  the  falls  and  rapids  in  the  streams  this 


178  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

steep  slope  is  called  the  Fall  Line.  West  of  the  Piedmont 
Plateau  is  the  belt  of  Appalachian  ridges  and  inter- 
vening valleys.  The  western  slope  of  the  Appalachian 
Highland  is  called  the  Appalachian  Plateau,  which  is 
divided  into  a  northern  portion,  called  the  Allegheny 
Plateau,  and  a  southern  part,  called  the  Cumberland 
Plateau. 

Central  Plain.  —  The  broad  lowland  between  the  Appa- 
lachian and  Cordilleran  highlands  is  the  Central  Plain. 
This  extensive  region  is  divided  into  the  Glacial  Drift  Plain 
in  the  northern  part,  the  Gulf  Coast  Plain  in  the  southern 
part,  and  the  Great  Plains,  or  High  Plains,  in  the  western 
part.  The  greatest  river  system  and  the  largest  lakes  in 
the  world  are  found  in  the  Central  Plain. 

Cordilleran  Highland.  —  The  Cordilleran  Highland  is 
divided  into  three  main  divisions.  The  eastern  part  is 
the  Rocky  Mountains ;  the  western  part  is  the  Pacific 
Ranges,  which  include  the  Coast  Ranges,  Sierra  Nevada, 
and  Cascade  Mountains ;  the  middle  part,  lying  between 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific  Ranges,  is  a  wide 
belt  of  high  plateaus.  Beginning  at  the  north,  these  are 
the  Columbia  Plateau,  the  Great  Basin,  which  is  really  a 
high  plateau,  and  the  Colorado  Plateau.  The  Coast 
Ranges  lie  so  near  the  Pacific  Ocean  that  there  is  scarcely  a 
plain  along  the  coast.  Between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
Cascade  Mountains  on  the  east  and  the  Coast  Ranges  on 
the  west  is  a  narrow  belt  of  lowland  that  is  almost  con- 
tinuous from  Mexico  to  Canada.  The  southern  part, 
called  the  Great  Valley  of  California,  is  made  up  of  the 
valleys  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  rivers.  The 
northern  part  of  this  lowland  is  the  Willamette  valley  and 
the  basin  of  Puget  Sound. 


NATURAI.   ASSETS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES  1 79 


A  view  of  Pikes  Peak,  Colorado. 


i8o 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Climate.  —  The  United  States  lies  in  the  warm  part  of 
the  temperate  zone.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  country, 
the  summers  are  long  and  hot,  and  the  winters  are  short, 
with  only  a  very  few  days  of  freezing  weather.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  United  States,  the  winters  are  long 
and  very  cold.  The  east  and  west  coasts  have  a  niilder 
climate  than  the  central  part  of  the  country,  where  the 
winters  are  quite  cold  and  the  summers  hot. 

The  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  has  ample  rain, 
which  comes  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic 


'^'mmm-m^^^^ 


m^  ^ . 


W<y^^.  / 


RAINFALL  IN  INCHES 
I  I  Less  than  10 

\'',',[ZJ  10  lo  20 

40  lo  t>0 
Uvcr  M) 


To         RAINFALL  CF  THE 
UNITED  STATES 


100  ;go  HOP  4110 


o     -\, 


Ocean.  The  greater  portion  of  the  western  half  does  not 
have  sufficient  rain,  and  is  either  arid  or  semiarid.  Narrow 
belts  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Pacific  Ranges  have 
abundant  rainfall ;  and  the  region  of  greatest  rainfall  in 
the  United  States  is  the  western  slope  of  the  Coast  Ranges 
in  Washington  and  Oregon.  As  the  moist  air  of  the  pre- 
vailing winds  from  the  Pacific  strike  the  mountain  ranges 


NATURAL  ASSETS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  l8l 

much  of  the  moisture  falls  as  rain  or  snow.  The  eastern 
slopes  of  these  mountains  and  the  plateau  belt  to  the  east 
are  quite  dry.  Although  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  far 
from  the  Pacific,  yet  considerable  moisture  falls  upon  their 
windward  slopes,  thus  forming  another  rainfall  belt.  The 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Rockies  and  the  High  Plains  arc  semi- 
arid,  for  they  are  cut  off  from  the  moisture  coming  from  the 
Pacific,  and  they  are  too  far  from  the  sources  of  the  rain 
that  falls  in  eastern  United  States  to  profit  therefrom. 

Natural  Resources.  —  The  soil  is  by  far  our  greatest 
natural  resource.  The  large  areas  of  fertile  land  with 
enough  warmth  and  rain  for  crops  make  the  United  States 
one  of  the  most  productive  nations.  The  Atlantic  Coast 
Plain,  the  Gulf  Coast  Plain,  and  the  Glacial  Drift  Plain 
are  the  most  extensive  agricultural  sections  of  the  country. 
Not  only  the  deep  soil,  but  the  climate  and  level  surface 
give  them  their  agricultural  prominence. 

The  mountainous  regions  of  the  United  States  are  the 
chief  mining  districts.  In  the  Appalachians  are  great 
deposits  of  coal,  iron,  and  building  stone.  The  richest 
mines  of  iron,  however,  are  in  the  hilly  district  south  and 
west  of  Lake  Superior ;  and  there  are  extensive  deposits 
of  coal  in  the  Central  Plain.  In  the  Cordilleran  Highland 
are  rich  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper. 

Great  forest  areas  exist  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains, 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  Pacific  Ranges.  Our  most  valu- 
able forests  are  on  the  rainy  slopes  of  the  Coast  Ranges, 
the  Cascade  Mountains,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada.  These 
slopes  have  also  the  largest  amount  of  water  power  for 
manufacturing  purposes.  Another  valuable  forest  region 
is  in  the  Gulf  Coast  Plain.  The  coniferous  forests  near 
Lake  Superior  still  furnish  large  quantities  of  lumber. 


1 82  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

Conclusion.  —  No  country  is  blessed  with  greater  natural 
wealth  than  the  United  States.  The  extensive  plains,  with 
favorable  soil  and  climate ;  the  great  mineral  wealth, 
especially  the  abundance  of  coal  and  iron  ;  the  deep  water- 
ways and  swift  streams  that  furnish  power;  and  the  valu- 
able forests  of  mountains  and  plains  all  form  the  physical 
basis  for  the  great  wealth  and  industrial  progress  of  the 
United  States. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Sketch  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States,  showing  the 
irregular  coasts.  Name  at  least  a  dozen  indentations.  Indi- 
cate the  four  great  natural  regions.  On  your  sketch  name  all 
the  parts  of  each  that  are  mentioned  in  this  chapter.  In  which 
region  do  you  live  ? 

2.  Why  have  the  coasts  milder  climate  than  the  interior  ? 

3.  What  is  the  annual  rainfall  in  your  part  of  the  country  ? 

4.  Make  a  careful  study  of  a  daily  weather  map  of  the  United 
States. 

5.  What  are  the  chief  natural  resources  of  your  state? 

6.  On  your  own  map  indicate  the  sections  where  the  prin- 
cipal natural  resources  of  the  country  are  found. 


CHAPTER   XITI 
FIELD   CROPS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

General  Agricultural  Conditions.  —  Because  of  the  natural 
advantages  of  soil,  surface,  and  climate,  together  with  the 
good  management  of  farms,  agriculture  is  a  source  of  more 
wealth  to  the  United  States  than  any  other  industry.  The 
extensive  areas  of  fertile  land  with  ample  heat  and  rainfall 
make  possible  large  acreage  of  crops  and  high  yields  per 
acre.  Improved  machinery  is  greatly  reducing  human 
labor  on  the  farm  and  better  methods  of  farming  are  pro- 
ducing larger  crops  and  at  the  same  time  keeping  up  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil.  We  raise  a  great  variety  of  crops,  yet  the 
three  leading  ones,  corn,  cotton,  and  wheat,  are  worth  about 
one  half  of  the  total  value  of  all  crops.  In  the  production 
of  these  three,  the  United  States  leads  all  other  countries. 

Field  Crops.  —  The  crops  that  are  generally  raised  in 
fields,  as  distinct  from  orchards,  gardens,  and  forests,  are 
called  field  crops.  These  crops  far  exceed  all  the  others 
in  acreage  and  value.  The  most  important  field  crops  are 
corn,  cotton,  hay  and  other  forage,  wheat,  oats,  tobacco, 
barley,  flax,  sugar  cane,  rye,  sugar  beets,  and  rice. 

Corn.  —  To-day  corn  easily  leads  as  our  largest  and 
most  valuable  crop.  No  country  rivals  the  United  States 
in  its  production.  It  produces  four  fifths  of  the  world's 
supply.  The  belt  of  highest  corn  yield  is  in  the  Central 
States,  including  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Missouri, 
Oklahoma,  Texas,  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Kentucky.  At 
the  present  time  the  average  yield  per  acre  is  nearly  thirty 

183 


1 84 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


bushels.  Great  attention  is  being  given  to  soils,  seed  selec- 
tion, and  methods  of  cultivation  in  order  to  increase  this 
yield.  It  is  possible  to  double  the  average  production  per 
acre  with  but  little  extra  work  and  expense. 


Distribution  of  com   in  the  United  States.     One  dot  equals   100,000 

bushels. 

Rainfall  and  temperature  have  much  to  do  with  the 
yield  of  corn.  It  is  planted  in  the  spring  just  as  soon  as 
danger  of  frost  is  over,  and  it  usually  matures  before  a 
killing  frost  of  autumn.  Sometimes,  however,  an  early 
frost  damages  the  corn.  The  most  common  cause  of  a  low 
3deld  is  a  scarcity  of  rain  during  the  months  of  June,  July, 
and  August.  The  growing  crop  is  cultivated  several  times 
to  loosen  the  ground,  kill  the  weeds,  and  to  make  a  mulch 
of  fine  soil  that  prevents  the  rapid  evaporation  of  soil 
moisture.  Much  of  the  corn  is  harvested  by  cutting  the 
stalks,  either  by  hand  or  by  a  com  harvester,  and  placing 
them  in  shocks  in  the  field  until  the  grain  is  dry  and  hard. 


FIELD    CROPS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


185 


Then  the  shocks  are  hauled  to  the  barn  yard,  where  a  corn 
shredder  husks  the  ears  of  corn  and  cuts  the  stalks  and 
leaves  into  small  lengths  for  fodder.  Most  of  the  corn, 
however,  is  husked  from  the  standing  stalks  whose  leaves 
and  husks  furnish  winter  pasture  for  cattle  and  horses. 

Corn  is  used  as  food  by  man  and  animals.  In  the  United 
States  the  greater  part  is  fed  to  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  and 
poultry  on  the  farms  where  this  grain  is  grown. 

Corn  meal,  breakfast  foods,  hominy,  canned  corn,  corn- 
starch, and  glucose  are  important  foods  made  from  the 
grain.  Corn  oil,  made  from  the  germs  of  the  grains,  is 
used  for  lubricants,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  The 
cobs  are  used  mainly  for  fuel.     In  addition   to  these,  a 


B 


"I"- "5 


Husking  com. 


1 86 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


number  of  other  products  are  obtained  from  the  corn 
plant. 

Wheat.  —  Next  to  corn,  wheat  is  our  most  valuable 
food  crop.  So  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  rais- 
ing of  wheat  here  that  the  United  States  ranks  as  the 
greatest  producer  of  this  cereal.  The  slightly  rolling  land 
and  the  fertile  soil  of  the  North  Central  section,  as  well 
as  the  rich  valleys  of  Cahfornia  and  the  Columbia  River 
region,  are  well  adapted  to  its  production.  The  leading 
wheat  states  are :  North  Dakota,  Kansas,  Minnesota, 
South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Illinois,  Washington,  Indiana, 
Missouri,  and  Ohio.  Wheat  requires  a  cooler  cHmate 
than  corn,  therefore  it  does  not  grow  so  far  south  as  the 
latter,  and  its  northern  limit  reaches  far  beyond  the  corn 
belt. 

The  enormous  acreage  and  yield  of  wheat  has  been  made 
possible  by   the  improvement   of  farm  machinery.     The 


Wheat-growing  areas  and  chief  flour-milHng  centers  of  the  United  States. 


FIELD    CROPS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


187 


Harvesting  wheat. 


harvester, which  cuts  and  binds  the  wheat,  and  the  thresher, 
which  separates  the  grain  from  the  chaff  and  straw,  are  the 
most  important  machines.  In  regions  where  farms  are 
measured  by  thousands  of  acres  the  ground  is  plowed  by 
large  plows  drawn  by  traction  engines.  The  old-time 
farmer  stored  his  few  bushels  of  wheat  in  his  bins, 
and  had  it  ground  into  flour  at  the  Httle  neighborhood 
mill,  as  he  needed  it  for  family  use.  The  modern  farmer 
raises  for  commercial  purposes  far  more  than  he  can 
conveniently  house.  After  the  harvests  vast  quantities 
of  grain  are  transported  to  immense  elevators  to  wait 
for  shipment.  Instead  of  sacking  wheat,  as  formerly,  it 
is  stored  and  shipped  in  bulk.  This  saves  time,  labor,  and 
expense. 

A  large  amount  of  wheat  finds  its  way  to  the  mills  of 
Minneapolis,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  where  it  is  ground  into 
flour  and  shipped  to  many  domestic  and  foreign  markets. 
Thousands  of  bushels  of  American  wheat  take  a  voyage 
down  the  Great  Lakes  through  the  Erie  Canal  and  Hudson 


1 88  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

River,  across  the  Atlantic  into  Europe.  Since  wheat 
bread  is  the  staff  of  Hfe  among  nearly  all  the  white 
race  in  Europe,  Africa,  Australia,  and  America,  we  are 
fortunate  in  being  able  to  produce  so  much  of  the  world's 
supply. 

Wheat  has  other  products  besides  flour.  Some  of  the 
grain  is  turned  into  starch,  macaroni,  and  breakfast  foods. 
The  straw  is  used  for  rough  feed,  stable  bedding,  manu- 
factured into  paper,  or  braided  into  hats,  mattings,  and 
baskets. 

The  average  yield  of  wheat  per  acre  in  the  United  States 
is  only  about  sixteen  bushels,  while  Germany  and  Great 
Britain  have  about  twice  this  yield.  The  cause  of  this 
great  difference  is  that  the  American  has  given  more  atten- 
tion to  large  acreage  of  wheat  rather  than  to  high  yield 
per  acre.  These  European  countries  with  limited  area 
cultivate  the  crop  with  the  greatest  skill  and  are  careful 
to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  We  are  just  beginning 
to  realize  the  need  of  intensive  cultivation. 

Oats,  Barley,  and  Rye.  —  Of  the  grain  crops,  oats  rank 
next  to  wheat  in  value.  Corn  lands  are  well  adapted  to 
oats,  and  the  two  leading  corn  states  lead  also  in  the  pro- 
duction of  oats.  The  leading  wheat  states  also  rank  high 
in  yield  of  oats.  Although  oatmeal  is  a  good  breakfast 
food,  most  of  the  oats  is  fed  to  stock.  Barley  and  rye 
are  far  less  important  than  wheat  and  oats.  The  North 
Central  and  Pacific  states  lead  in  the  production  of  barley, 
Minnesota  and  California  being  the  two  leading  states. 
In  the  West,  barley  largely  takes  the  place  of  corn  for  feed- 
ing stock.  With  the  exception  of  rice,  rye  is  our  smallest 
grain  crop.  The  chief  rye  states  are  Wisconsin,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Michigan,  and  Minnesota. 


FIELD    CROPS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


189 


Rice.  —  Rice  grows  in  the  low  river  valleys  and  coastal 
plains  of  the  Southern  States,  where  the  land  can  be  easily 
flooded.  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  and  South  Carolina 
lead  in  its  production. 

Hay  and  Forage.  —  The  combined  value  of  the  hay  and 
forage  crops  is  surpassed  only  by  that  of  corn  and  cotton. 
In  the  New  England,  Middle  Atlantic,  and  Rocky  Moun- 
tain states,  hay  and  forage  are  the  leading  crops.  This 
is  due  mainly  to  the 
fact  that  grass  and 
other  forage  plants 
grow  well  on  hilly 
and  mountainous 
lands  where  grain 
crops  cannot  be- 
successfully  raised. 

The  Central 
States,  however,  are 
the  greatest  pro- 
ducers of  hay  and 
forage,  although  in 
this  section  these 
crops  are  not  so  im- 
portant as  the  grain  s. 

Timothy  is  the  most  valuable  hay  for  feeding  horses 
and  brings  the  highest  price  in  the  market.  The  acreage 
of  timothy  exceeds  that  of  any  other  hay  plants,  although 
the  acreage  of  timothy  and  clover  mixed  is  greater  than 
that  of  pure  timothy.  Clover  is  grown  not  only  for  hay 
and  pasture,  but  also  to  enrich  the  ground. 

Alfalfa  promises  to  become  one  of  the  most  profitable 
forage  plants.     At  present,  nearly  all  of  the  alfalfa  is  grown 


Hoeing  rice,  South  Carolina. 


190 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


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Mowing  a  field  of  alfalfa. 


in  the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi.  It  thrives  best  where 
there  is  abundant  sunshine  and  good  soil,  and  is  one  of  the 
leading  crops  in  the  irrigation  districts  of  the  West.  It 
grows  readily  on  high  mountain  slopes  as  well  as  in  low 
valleys.  Its  long  roots  enable  it  to  thrive  even  in  dry 
regions.  Montana  produces  three  harvests  of  alfalfa  a 
year,  while  Cahfornia  grows  fiVe  per  year.  Alfalfa  is  of 
special  value  to  Western  stockmen  because  of  its  great  feed- 
ing value  to  cattle  and  sheep.  The  stacks  of  this  hay 
furnish  an  abundance  of  food  through  the  winter,  and  also 
during  summer  droughts.  Alfalfa,  Hke  clover,  increases 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  This  enrichment  of  the  soil  in 
which  they  grow,  makes  these  two  hay  crops  doubly  valu- 
able to  the  farmers. 

Cotton.  —  Fibers  that  are  used  in  manufacturing  cloth 
are  obtained  from  hemp,  sisal,  jute,  flax,  cotton,  and  other 


FIELD   CROPS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


191 


plants.  But  the  cotton  surpasses  all  others  in  desirable 
qualities ;  and  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  important. 
Because  it  can  be  so  easily  cleansed  cotton  cloth  is  taking 
the  place  of  wool,  even  in  winter.  Savage  tribes  of  remote 
and  little-known  warm  parts  of  the  earth,  who  were  form- 
erly almost  unclad,  are  gradually  adopting  cotton  dress. 
Cotton  cloth  is  one  of  the  most  important  manufactured 
products  of  the  world. 

Production  and  Export  of  American  Cotton.  —  While 
cotton  grows  in  most  tropical  and  subtropical  countries, 
two  thirds  of  the  world's  crop  is  harvested  in  our  own 
Southern  States,  where  the  summers  are  warm  and  long, 
and  the  climate  is  moderately  moist.  The  annual  cotton 
production  of  these  states  is  worth  more  than  the  world's 
combined  gold  and  silver  output.  The  leading  cotton 
states  are  Texas,  Georgia,  Alabama,  South  Carolina,  and 
Arkansas.     Not  only  the  most  cotton  but  the  best  quaUty 


Cotton- growing  region  and  chief  centers  of  cotton  manufacture. 


192  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

is  produced  in  the  United  States.  This  is  the  sea-island 
cotton  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  whose  long,  satin- 
like fibers  make  the  line  threads,  laces,  and  fabrics. 


Cotton  bolls. 

Cotton  is  planted  in  March  or  April.  By  the  middle 
of  June  the  field  is  covered  with  green  plants  containing 
many  beautiful  flowers.  The  cotton  ripens  and  the  pick- 
ing begins  in  July.  The  work  continues  until  Christmas. 
The  seeds  are  removed  by  gins,  and  the  fiber  is  pressed  into 
500-pound  bales,  which  are  shipped  to  factories  in  the 
North  and  South  and  to  foreign  countries.  Beginning  with 
August  and  continuing  to  January,  cotton  is  constantly 
being  loaded  on  cars  and  sent  to  distributing  centers,  where 
it  starts  on  long  rail  and  water  journeys.     More  than  one 


FIELD   CROPS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


193 


third  of  the  crop  remains  in  the  United  States.  A  third 
goes  to  Great  Britain,  and  the  rest  to  Germany  and  other 
North  Sea  countries.  Northwest  Europe,  where  no  cotton 
is  raised  at  all,  is  the  great  receiving  market  for  American 
cotton ;  but  India,  Egypt,  and  Brazil  also  help  to  supply 
the  busy  European  mills  with  raw  cotton. 

The  large  cotton-collecting  stations  of  the  west  half  of 
the  cotton  belt  are  Memphis,  Montgomery,  Shrevcport, 
Vicksburg,  Houston,  and  New  Orleans.  Galveston,  with 
its  fine  harbor,  and  surrounded  by  the  immense  plantations 
of  Texas,  is  the  leading  cotton  port.  Charleston,  Savannah, 
Mobile,  and  Pensacola  are  important  eastern  points  of 
export.  Our  total  crop  averages  about  12,000,000  bales 
of  500  pounds  each. 


Bales  of  cotton. 


194  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

The  Enemies  of  Cotton.  —  The  cotton  plant  has  a  num- 
ber of  enemies  that  cause  an  annual  loss  of  millions  of 
dollars.  Due  largely  to  pests  and  fungous  diseases,  the 
average  yield  per  acre  has  been  slightly  reduced  in  recent 
years.  The  most  important  pest  is  the  boll  weevil.  This 
weevil  came  into  Texas  from  Mexico  several  years  ago. 
It  spread  inland  at  the  rate  of  about  fifty  miles  per  year, 
and  has  now  reached  Oklahoma  and  Alabama.  This 
insect  passes  through  four  stages,  —  egg,  worm,  pupa,  and 
adult  weevil.  The  adult  female,  less  than  an  inch  long, 
lays  during  a  season  from  three  hundred  to  three  thousand 
eggs  on  the  foliage  and  in  the  bolls.  The  worms  which 
hatch  from  the  eggs  eat  the  leaves  and  bolls,  and  the  cotton 
within  the  infected  bolls  is  destroyed.  Pulling  up  the 
cotton  plant  in  the  fall  and  burning  the  roots  and  stalks  is 
the  most  effective  means  of  killing  the  weevils.  A  fungous 
disease,  called  cotton  wilt,  does  considerable  damage. 
The  fungus  enters  the  roots  and  causes  a  wilting  and  final 
death  of  the  plants.  No  satisfactory  method  of  preventing 
this  disease  has  yet  been  discovered. 

Harvesting  Cotton.  —  The  cotton  bolls  do  not  all  ripen 
at  the  same  time  and  the  harvesting  of  cotton  extends 
from  July  to  December.  This  is  the  most  expensive  part 
of  cotton  raising,  since  the  laborers  must  go  over  a  field 
several  times  during  the  ripening  period.  Machines  for 
picking  cotton  have  been  tried,  but  they  have  not  proved 
very  successful,  hence  the  crop  is  practically  all  picked  by 
hand. 

After  the  cotton  is  picked  it  is  hauled  to  ginning  mills, 
where  the  fiber  and  seeds  are  separated.  The  fiber  is 
then  baled  for  shipment.  Before  the  invention  of  the  cotton 
gin  by  Eli  Whitney  the  separation  of  fiber  and  seed  was 


FIELD    CROPS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


IQ5 


such  a  slow  process  that  onl}^  a  very  httle  cotton  could  be 
raised,  as  it  took  one  man  an  entire  day  to  seed  one  pound 
of  cotton  fiber.  The  cotton  gin  revolutionized  the  cotton 
industry  and  made  it  possible  for  the  Southern  States  to 
help  clothe  men,  women,  and  children  in  every  quarter  of 
the  globe. 


Weighing  the  day's  picking. 

Cotton  Products.  —  When  the  cotton  reaches  the  mill 
it  is  first  cleaned  from  dirt  and  leaves.  Then  it  is  combed 
and  twisted  into  threads  and  yarns.  The  yarns  are  woven 
into  cotton  cloth.  Mixed  goods  are  made  by  weaving  cot- 
ton yarns  v\^ith  threads  of  wool  or  silk.  The  shortest  bits 
of  cotton  are  manufactured  into  wadding,  cotton  bat- 
ting used  in  comforters,  and  absorbent  cotton  used 
for  medicinal  purposes.  Cotton  treated  with  acids  is 
used  to  make  substitutes  for  silk,  also  celluloid  and  certain 


196  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

explosives.  From  the  seed  we  get  cottonseed  oil  and  oil 
cake.  The  seeds  are  hulled,  the  kernels  are  ground,  and 
the  oil  is  pressed  out  by  heavy  machinery.  The  oil  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  soaps  and  candles,  for  lubri- 
cating purposes,  and  as  a  substitute  for  olive  oil.  The 
hulls  are  used  as  paper  stock,  cattle  food,  fuel,  and  fer- 
tilizer. 

Cotton  Rivals  of  the  United  States.  —  Next  to  the 
United  States,  India  and  Egypt  are  the  largest  producers 
of  cotton.  England  is  doing  much  to  encourage  the  grow- 
ing of  cotton  in  these  two  countries  and  in  other  parts  of 
the  British  Empire.  Brazil  and  Peru  raise  large  quantities 
of  the  long  staple  cotton.  Good  fiber  is  raised  in  central 
Asia  and  sent  to  Russian  mills.  China  raises  cotton  and 
uses  all  of  it  in  her  own  cotton  mills.  Germany  and  France 
are  working  out  the  problem  of  cotton  raising  in  their 
tropical  colonies. 

Flax.  —  Flax  was  introduced  into  this  country  by  the 
early  settlers  of  New  England,  who  used  the  fiber  for  making 
clothing.  About  1800,  when  cotton  came  into  general 
use,  flax  began  to  be  cultivated  for  the  seed  also.  From 
the  flaxseed  is  obtained  the  linseed  oil  which  is  used  in 
making  paints  and  varnishes.  To-day  in  the  United 
States  flax  is  raised  almost  entirely  for  the  seed.  Argen- 
tina and  the  United  States  are  the  leading  countries  in  the 
production  of  flaxseed.  In  Europe  flax  is  raised  mainly 
for  the  fiber,  which  is  woven  into  linen.  North  Dakota, 
South  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Minnesota  grow  nearly 
all  the  flaxseed  produced  in  our  country.  Man  has  not 
succeeded  in  producing  good  seed  and  good  fiber  in  the 
same  plant.  Flax  for  fiber  must  be  harvested  before  the 
seed  is  ripe,  which,  of  course,  makes  the  seed  of  poor  quality. 


FIELD    CROPS   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


197 


If  the  seed  is  permitted  to  mature,  the  fiber  is  too  coarse 
for  the  weaving  of  good  linen,  and  can  be  used  only  in  the 
manufacture  of  binding  twine,  insulating  material  for 
refrigerator  cars,  and  very  heavy  paper  such  as  is  used  in 
cement  bags. 


i 


A  field  of  flax. 


Sugar.  —  A  few  generations  ago  sugar  was  a  luxury. 
To-day  it  is  considered  a  necessity  in  all  civilized  countries. 
At  present  the  world's  crop  amounts  to  about  16,000,000 
tons,  two  thirds  of  which  is  produced  and  consumed  in 


1 98 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Europe  and  North  America.  The  people  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  are  the  greatest  consumers  of  sugar. 
The  former  use  each  year  86  pounds  per  capita  and  the 
latter  82  pounds.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  we  produce  a 
large  amount,  our  greatest  import  is  sugar. 

Sugar  Cane.  —  Sugar  cane  grows  in  the  Southern  States. 
More  than  two  thirds  of  this  crop  is  grown  in  Louisiana, 
in  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi.  Some  of  the  Louisiana 
sugar  plantations  contain  several  thousand  acres  each. 
The  cane,  which  resembles  corn,  grows  as  high  as  fifteen 
feet,  in  rows  six  or  seven  feet  apart.  It  grows  from  buds 
at  the  joints  of  the  stalks,  which  are  laid  end  to  end  in 
furrows,  three  rows  being  placed  side  by  side.  This  must 
be  done  by  hand ;  then  soil  is  thrown  over  the  cane  by  a 
plow.     One  planting  lasts  two  or  three  years.     In  October 


Sugar  cane  in  Louisiana. 


FIELD    CROPS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES  199 

the  laborers  cut  the  cane  stalks  by  hand,  as  near  the  ground 
as  possible. 

The  leaves  contain  very  little  sugar,  so  they  are  stripped 
off.  The  stalks  are  carried  on  cars  to  the  factories.  There 
huge  rollers  crush  them  and  squeeze  out  the  juice.  In 
the  sugar  mill  this  juice  is  boiled  and  crystallized  into  raw 
sugar.  Then  it  is  shipped  to  the  refineries,  usually  found 
in  distant  states.  The  crude  sugar  is  boiled  and  filtered, 
and  finally  placed  in  barrels  as  pure  sugar.  The  machinery 
required  for  these  final  processes  is  so  expensive  that  there 
are  very  few  refineries  in  the  United  States,  although  our 
country  ranks  first  in  this  business.  We  import  raw  sugar 
from  the  East  and  West  Indies,  Hawaii,  South  America, 
and  Europe  ;  and  turn  it  into  snow-white  granulated,  loaf, 
or  powdered  sugar. 

Beet  Sugar.  —  About  half  of  the  world's  sugar  is  made 
from  the  sugar  beet.  In  its  fleshy  root  is  stored  the  sweet 
substance,  which  man  extracts  by  mangling  and  boiling. 
The  juice  is  manufactured  into  sugar  in  much  the  same 
way  as  that  of  the  sugar  cane.  The  beet  sugar  industry 
has  thrived  in  Europe  since  1850,  when  a  German  chemist 
discovered  a  method  of  extracting  the  sugar.  For  many 
years  it  has  been  an  important  occupation  in  Germany, 
Russia,  Austria-Hungary,  and  France.  During  the  last 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  considerable  attention 
was  given  it  in  our  country,  and  it  is  now  yielding  large 
crops  in  Colorado,  California,  Michigan,  Utah,  Idaho,  and 
Wisconsin. 

Cane  and  beet  sugar  are  competing  with  each  other  in 
supplying  the  world's  demand.  Cane  has  the  advantage 
in  ease  of  cultivation.  While  the  task  of  planting  it  is 
irksome,  it  is  not  so  tiresome  as  the  work  required  by  the 


200 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 


Irrigating  a  field  of  sugar  beets. 


beet.  The  sugar  beet  has  the  advantage  of  a  larger  area 
of  possible  cultivation  than  sugar  cane  has.  It  grows  in 
temperate  climates,  while  the  cane  is  confined  to  warm 
belts.  To  promote  sugar  beet  production  some  European 
countries  pay  bounties  to  the  producers. 

Tobacco.  —  One  of  the  most  important  plants  found  in 
America  is  tobacco.  Before  our  country  had  a  money 
system  of  its  own,  tobacco  was  the  "  coin  of  the  realm  " 
in  some  of  the  colonies.  We  are  told  that  the  early  Vir- 
ginia planters  even  purchased  a  shipment  of  wives  with 
this  product  of  their  fields.  The  leading  tobacco  states 
are  Kentucky,  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Ohio,  Tennessee, 
Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  South  Carolina,  Maryland,  West 
Virginia,  and  Connecticut.     The  United  States  is  the  great- 


FIELD   CROPS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


20I 


est  exporter  of  tobacco,  large  quantities  being  sent  to 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America. 

An  extract  of  tobacco  is  a  destroyer  of  certain  plant 
pests  in  nursery  gardens.  When  sprinkled  on  the  most 
delicate  flowering  plants,  the  blossoms  remain  uninjured 
while  the  insects  are  soon  killed.  This  extract  is  of  great 
value  in  the  vineyards  of  Germany,  France,  and  Italy, 
where  it  is  used  to  destroy  grape  parasites.  Used  as  a 
sheep  dip  it  destroys  ticks  which  bury  themselves  in  the 
wool  and  damage  the  fleece. 

Educational  Work.  —  The  national  government  has  a 
Department  of  Agriculture  whose  business  is  to  study  soils, 
crops,  and  farm  animals,  and  to  do  many  other  things  that 
will  benefit  the  farmers  of  this  country.     This  department 


Cutting  tobacco,  Kentucky. 

employs  hundreds  of  scientific  experts,  who  are  engaged  in 
many  lines  of  investigation.     The  Bureau  of  Soils  is  the 


202  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

branch  of  the  department  that  studies  the  soils  of  the  United 
States.  Other  leading  branches  of  the  department  are 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Weather  Bureau,  and  Forest  Service. 
Each  state  has  a  college  of  agriculture  and  an  experi- 
ment station  in  which  scientific  agriculture  is  taught  and 
agricultural  experiments  are  carried  on.  As  a  result  of 
this  study,  great  improvements  have  been  made  in  farm 
methods  and  in  the  general  welfare  of  the  farming  popula- 
tion. Worn-out  sections  in  the  East  and  West  have  been 
almost  made  over.  Wide-awake,  public-spirited  men  have 
set  up  model  farms  where  scientific  methods  are  put  into 
practice,  and  they  share  their  knowledge  with  the  farmers 
of  the  neighborhood.  Thus  the  whole  community  is 
benefited  by  the  practical  agricultural  teaching  of  scientific 
men. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  grains  and  other  farm  products. 
Collect  good  pictures  of  agricultural  activities,  such  as  wheat 
harvesting,  haying,  cotton  picking,  and  corn  harvesting. 

2.  Visit  a  wheat  field,  a  cotton  field,  a  sugar  plantation,  a 
hay  field,  or  an  agricultural  college. 

3.  Find  the  present  market  prices  of  the  products  mentioned 
in  this  chapter.     Are  the  prices  rising  or  falling?     Why? 

4.  On  the  map  of  the  world  point  out  every  continent,  country, 
and  city  spoken  of  in  this  chapter. 

5.  Is  wheat  or  corn  more  valuable  to  us  ?  Give  reasons  for 
your  answer. 

6.  Which  of  the  leading  field  crops  do  not  grow  in  your  sec- 
tion ?     Why  ? 


CHAPTER   XIV 
VEGETABLES    AND    FRUITS 

The  pioneers,  after  coming  to  America,  introduced  many 
European  fruits  and  also  began  to  cultivate  some  of  the 
native  wild  fruits.  For  a  long  time  only  enough  for  im- 
mediate local  consumption  was  produced.  But  when  ex- 
press trains  and  fast  steamers  came  into  use,  the  large 
cities  were  supplied  with  fruits  and  vegetables  that 
grew  hundreds  of  miles  away.  Refrigerator  cars  have 
made  long  shipments  of  perishable  goods  profitable,  hence 
large  sums  are  realized  from  orchards  and  gardens. 

Vegetables.  —  In  many  parts  of  the  country  people  de- 
vote themselves  to  the  growing  of  vegetables  instead  of 
field  crops.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  large  cities  and  in  the  warm  South.  Celery,  lettuce, 
radishes,  beets,  beans,  peas,  cabbage,  cucumbers,  .and  pota- 
toes are  raised.  The  most  important  vegetable  grown  in  the 
United  States  is  the  potato.  The  New  England,  Middle 
Atlantic,  and  North  Central  States  raise  three  fourths  of 
this  crop.  The  leading  states  in  the  yield  of  potatoes  are 
New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Maine,  and  Pennsylvania. 
Most  of  the  sweet  potatoes  are  grown  in  the  South. 

Abundance  and  Variety  of  Fruits.  —  The  United  States 
has  a  greater  abundance  and  variety  of  fruits  than  any 
other  country.  Because  of  good  soil  and  wide  range  of 
climate  nearly  all  kinds  can  be  produced,  —  tropical  fruits, 
such  as  oranges,  lemons,  dates,  figs,  and  pineapples,  as  well 
as  the  deciduous  fruits  of  the  temperate  zone,  such  as  apples 
and  pears.     The  leading  fruits,  in  order  of  value,  are  apples, 

203 


204  THREE   INDUSTRI.\L   NATIONS 

peaches,  strawberries,  oranges,  grapes,  plums,  pears,  cherries, 
raspberries,  blackberries,  lemons,  apricots,  and  cranberries. 
Among  those  of  less  importance  are  pineapples,  figs,  dates, 
gooseberries,  and  currants.  The  only  fruit  that  is  exten- 
sively imported  into  the  United  States  is  the  banana. 

There  has  been  a  remarkable  increase  in  the  quantity 
of  fruits  grown,  consumed,  and  exported  in  the  United 
States  within  the  last  decade.  Our  climate  is  sufficiently 
varied  to  enable  us  to  have  fresh  fruit  on  our  tables  the 
year  round.  While  the  North  is  still  covered  with  ice 
and  snow  in  late  winter,  the  markets  offer  ripe  strawberries 
from  the  South.  Week  by  week  the  ripening  crop  moves 
northward,  so  that  the  season  lasts  until  July.  Pineapples 
may  be  bought  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of 
July.  Cherries  last  from  May  to  August.  Due  to  their 
excellent  keeping  qualities,  apples  and  oranges  are  in  the 
market  all  the  year  round. 

Diseases  and  Insect  Pests.  —  Millions  of  dollars'  worth 
of  fruit  are  lost  every -year  through  diseases  and  insects. 
Fungus  diseases  cause  the  bhght  of  pear  trees,  the  bitter- 
rot  of  apples,  and  the  mildew  of  grapes.  Common  insect 
pests  are  the  San  Jose  scale  of  citrus  fruits  and  the  codhng 
moth  of  the  apple  tree.  Birds  destroy  many  of  the  injurious 
insects,  but  they  cannot  keep  them  under  control ;  so  the 
spraying  of  fruit  trees  to  kill  insects  and  disease-producing 
fungi  is  necessary  in  order  to  secure  large  crops  of  good  fruit. 

Apples.  —  The  most  important  fruit  crop  of  the  United 
States  is  apples.  In  general,  they  are  more  easily  culti- 
vated and  shipped  than  other  fruits.  The  trees  are  hardy 
and  require  httle  care.  The  fruit  keeps  easily  and  so  can 
be  transported  at  comparatively  little  cost.  The  greatest 
apple-producing  states  are  New  York,   Michigan,  Penn- 


VEGETABLES    AND    FRUITS 


205 


sylvania,  Missouri,  Iowa,   Colorado,  Virginia,   Kentucky, 
Ohio,  Washington,  and  CaKfornia. 

Peaches.  —  In  quantity  and  value  peaches  rank  second 
among  the  fruits  of  this  country.  The  main  peach-growing 
sections  are  southern  Michigan,  the  Lake  Plains  south  of 
Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  the  Atlantic  Plain  from  Connecti- 
cut to  Chesapeake  Bay,  the  Southern  States  particularly 


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Picking  apples. 


2o6 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Georgia,  and  the  Pacific  States.  The  peaches  are  picked 
before  they  are  quite  ripe,  then  carefully  packed,  and 
shipped  in  refrigerator  cars  to  the  large  cities. 

Plums.  —  Plums  enter  the  market  in  the  natural  state 
for  immediate  use,  and  in  canned  and  dried  forms.  Prunes 
are  dried  plums.  The  Pacific  States  are  the  great  prune- 
producing  section  of  our  country.  After  the  ripe  plums  are 
shaken  from  the  trees,  they  are  washed,  assorted,  treated 
with  lye  to  soften  the  skins,  and  placed  in  shallow  trays  to 
dry  in  the  sun.  Then  they  are  put  in  storage  bins  in  which 
they  undergo  a  "  sweating  "  process.  Finally  the  prunes  are 
packed  in  boxes  for  shipment.  Look  at  the  can  of  plums 
on  the  shelf  of  a  grocery  store.  Does  the  label  show 
where  they  are  grown  and  canned? 

Grapes.  —  In  yield  of  grapes  California  ranks  far  ahead 
of    any    other    state.     Other    grape-growing    districts    are 


1 

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Underwood  it-  Underwood. 


A  vineyard  near  Lake  Erie. 


VEGETABLES   AND    FRUITS  207 

Michigan  and  the  Lake  Plains  in  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and 
New  York.  The  most  famous  grape-growing  section  in  the 
East  is  Chautauqua  county,  New  York,  on  Lake  Erie. 
Most  of  California's  enormous  yield  of  one  million  tons  is 
made  into  raisins,  wine,  and  grape  juice.  About  one  fifth 
is  sent  away  as  fresh  grapes.  The  packing  is  done  in 
crushed  cork  and  redwood  sawdust  to  prevent  damage  to 
the  fruit.  To  turn  grapes  into  raisins,  the  fruit  is  placed 
in  shallow  trays  in  the  open  air  and  the  sunlight  for  from 
ten  to  twenty  days.  In  order  to  prevent  the  loss  that 
would  be  caused  by  occasional  rains,  some  raisin  firms  have 
built  drying  houses  in  which  the  grapes  are  cured.  When 
the  drying  is  completed,  the  raisins  are  packed  and  shipped 
to  other  parts  of  the  country.  To  make  wine,  the  juice  is 
pressed  out  of  the  grapes,  fermented,  and  then  strained. 
The  manufacture  of  grape  juice  is  done  on  a  large  scale  in 
California  and  New  York. 

Small  Fruits.  —  The  strawberry  is  the  most  important 
of  all  the  small  fruits.  It  grows  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Raspberries  and  blackberries  grow  wild,  but  are 
also  cultivated ;  and  several  million  dollars'  worth  are 
grown  each  year.  These  berries  are  produced  mainly  for 
immediate  use.  They  must  reach  our  tables  soon  after 
they  are  picked.  Cranberries,  so  necessary  to  a  Thanks- 
giving dinner,  grow  in  moist  peat  bogs.  The  loose  black 
soil  is  often  covered  with  a  layer  of  sand  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  weeds.  The  berries  grow  on  creeping  or  trailing 
shrubs,  which  are  covered  with  water  all  winter  and  into 
the  spring.  The  water  protects  the  plants  from  the  severe 
cold  of  winter,  and  delays  blossoming  until  most  of  the 
danger  from  frosts  is  past.  Nearly  all  of  our  cranberries 
are  grown  in  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  and  Wisconsin. 


2o8 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Citrous  Fruits.  —  Oranges,  lemons,  limes,  and  grape- 
fruit are  called  citrous  fruits.  Most  of  the  oranges  of  the 
United  States  are  grown  in  CaHfomia,  Florida,  Arizona,  and 
Louisiana.  The  greatest  orange  district  is  southern  Cali- 
fornia. The  orange  trees  have  glossy,  evergreen  leaves. 
Fragrant  blossoms  and  green  and  yellow  fruit  may  be  seen 
on  the  trees  at  the  same  time.  Most  of  the  oranges  ripen 
from  December  to  July.  After  picking,  the  fruit  is  washed, 
assorted,  packed,  and  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  country 
and  to  foreign  lands.  Much  care  is  taken  to  prevent  in- 
jury to  the  oranges  in  picking  and  shipping.  Fancy  fruit 
is  often  protected  by  thin  wrapping  paper. 

The  lemon  grows  in  the  same  sections  as  the  orange. 
Lemon  trees  bear  constantly  and  the  fruit  may  be  found  on 
the  same  tree  in  all  stages  from  the  blossom  to  the  ripe 


Gathering  lemons. 


VEGETABLES   AND    FRUITS 


209 


2IO 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


lemon.  When  the  lemons  reach  the  desired  size,  they  are 
picked,  whether  ripe  or  green.  The  ripe  ones  are  shipped 
at  once,  while  the  green  ones  are  kept  in  storage  to  ripen. 
The  care  of  lemon  and  orange  orchards  is  much  the  same. 
The  trees  must  be  irrigated  during  the  dry  season.  The 
soil  of  the  orchards  is  cultivated  during  the  spring  and 
summer.  Frosts  sometimes  damage  the  citrous  orchards, 
hence  frost  protection  is  one  problem  of  the  fruit  growers. 
Some  orchards  are  equipped  with  hundreds  of  iron  coal- 
baskets  or  small  oil  burners,  which  are  lighted  when  the 
temperature  drops  to  near  the  freezing  point. 

Olives.  —  Olives  are  a  semitropical  fruit.  It  has  been 
only  a  short  time  since  the  United  States  realized  that  in 
California  and  Arizona  the  soil  and  climate  are  as  well 
adapted  to  such  fruits  as  in  Italy  and  Spain.  The  largest 
olive  orchard  in  the  world,  near  Los  Angeles,  contains  1 200 
acres,  each  with  100  trees.     The  chief  products  are  pickled 

olives  and  olive  oil. 
The  oil  is  made  by 
crushing  ripe  olives 
between  rollers. 
Olives  for  pickling 
are  picked  while 
green,  soaked  in  lye 
for  several  days  to 
remove  the  bitter 
flavor,  then  treated 
with  water  to  re- 
move all  traces  of 
the  lye.  After  that 
they  are  placed  in  casks  of  brine  and  finally  bottled. 
Figs  and  Pineapples.  —  These  tropical  or   semitropical 


Packing  figs. 


VEGETABLES   AND    FRUITS 


fruits  are  grown  somewhat  extensively  in  the  warmest  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States.  California  and  the  Gulf  coast 
are  the  chief  fig- 
growing  regions. 
The  raising  of  pine- 
apples is  confined  to 
Florida. 

The  Leading  Fruit 
State.  —  CaHfornia 
is  by  far  the  lead- 
ing fruit  state.  It 
is  first  in  the  yield 
of  oranges,  lemons, 
plums  and  prunes, 
cherries,  grapes,  and 
olives.  Large  quan- 
'  tities  of  peaches,  ap- 
ricots, apples,  figs,  and  many  other  fruits  are  grown.  Until 
recently  the  land  now  occupied  by  the  great  fruit  ranches 
of  the  state  was  desert. 

Fruit  Growing  in  Arid  Regions.  —  Not  only  in  California, 
but  in  other  Western  States,  large  orchards  are  now  growing 
on  lands  that  formerly  were  deserts.  Large  sections  of 
the  desert  regions  have  soil  that  is  very  fertile,  and  all 
that  it  needs  to  become  highly  productive  is  the  magic 
touch  of  water.  The  adjoining  mountains  are  covered 
each  winter  with  deep  snows  which,  in  summer,  melt  and 
produce  great  floods  in  the  desert  streams.  In  a  short  time 
after  the  snow  disappears  the  water  is  all  gone,  and  the 
stream  beds  are  dry.  In  many  places  engineers  have  built 
great  dams  of  masonry  which  hold  back  the  flood  water 
in  huge  reservoirs.     From  them,  canals  are  built  to  conduct 


An  irrigated  orange  orchard. 


212 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


the  water  to  fertile  fields  below.  Orchard  lands  which 
formerly  were  worthless  now  sell  for  $2000  per  acre.  The 
orange  groves  of  California  and  the  apple  orchards  of 
Washington  and  Oregon  give  handsome  returns.  In  the 
Yakima  valley  of  Washington  apple  orchards  frequently 
yield  $1700  worth  of  fruit  per  acre  in  one  year. 

Shipment  of  Fruit.  —  The  railroad  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  fruit  business.     By  the  use  of  refrigerator  cars, 


Underwood  d:  Underwood. 

Packing  oranges  in  a  refrigerator  car. 


fruits  can  be  shipped  long  distances,  and  thus  very  exten- 
sive markets  are  within  the  reach  of  fruit  growers.  In  the 
refrigerator  cars,  which  are  kept  cool  by  ice,  some  of  the 
fruit  in  the  center  of  boxes  and  baskets  does  not  become 
sufhciently  cool  to  retard  ripening  and  check  decay.  To 
remove  this  difhculty,  precooling  of  fruit  was  adopted  a 
few  years  ago.  This  process  originated  in  the  peach  dis- 
trict of  Georgia,  and  it  has  been  quite  generally  adopted 


VEGETABLES   AND   FRUITS  213 

in  the  citrous  belt  of  California.  The  fruit  is  chilled  to  35°, 
40°,  or  50°  either  in  a  warehouse  before  it  is  loaded  or  in 
cars  after  loading.  After  the  fruit  has  been  thoroughly 
precooled,  the  iced  refrigerator  cars  can  keep  it  cool  during 
shipment.  When  fruit  arrives  at  its  destination,  it  is  kept 
in  cold  storage  until  it  enters  the  market. 

Conclusion.  —  For  many  years  Americans  gave  little 
attention  to  the  raising  of  fruit.  Farmers  generally  had 
orchards  merely  to  supply  the  home  needs.  Having  set 
out  the  trees,  they  felt  they  had  done  their  duty,  and  left 
the  outcome  to  nature.  Now  orcharding  in  many  localities 
has  become  an  independent  business.  Many  men  devote 
all  their  time,  energy,  and  capital  to  it.  Fruit  growers 
have  formed  horticultural  societies  in  order  to  promote  the 
work  of  improving  fruits  and  to  make  each  vine,  bush,  and 
tree  bear  more  abundantly.  New  varieties  of  apples, 
peaches,  pears,  oranges,  and  other  fruits  are  being  created, 
and  many  foreign  fruits  are  being  successfully  introduced 
into  our  country. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Make  as  large  a  list  of  fruits  as  you  can.  Which  of  them 
are  raised  in  your  vicinity? 

2.  Examine  a  refrigerator  car.  How  does  it  dififer  from 
others  ? 

3.  Describe  a  canning  factory  which  you  have  visited. 

4.  Did  you  ever  raise  fruit  of  any  kind  ?  If  so,  tell  the  class 
about  your  experience. 

5.  Observe  with  special  care  all  fruit  packing  cases,  such  as 
boxes,  barrels,  cartons,  crates,  crushed  cork,  and  excelsior. 

6.  Define  deciduous  fruits ;  citrous  fruits. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE   FORESTS    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Former  Extent  of  Our  Forests.  —  Originally  our  country 
had  forests  unequaled  by  those  of  any  other  country. 
From  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  the  Mississippi  River  the  coun- 
try was  practically  one  vast  forest  area ;  and  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  mountain  ranges  near  the  Pacific  there 
were  large  forests.  In  all  there  were  about  850,000,000 
acres  of  forest  land.  So  rapidly  have  the  forests  been 
cleared  in  order  to  make  farms  or  have  been  cut  down  for 
lumber  that  to-day  we  have  only  about  60  per  cent  of  the 
former  area,  and  much  of  the  present  timber  land  has  been 
cut  over  and  the  best  trees  removed.     Although  greatly 


Forest  regions  of  the  United  States. 
214 


THE   FORESTS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


215 


depleted,  our  forests  constitute  an  enormous  source  of 
wealth,  and  we  still  lead  all  other  countries  in  the  pro- 
duction of  lumber. 


River  transportation  of  logs. 

Forest  Regions  of  the  United  States.  —  The  forest  areas 
of  the  United  States  are  grouped  into  five  large  forest  re- 
gions, —  Northern,  Southern,  Central  Hardwood,  Rocky 
Mountain,  and  Pacific  Coast  forests. 

Northern  Forest.  —  The  main  body  of  the  Northern 
Forest  lies  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  New  York, 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  A  southward  exten- 
sion follows  the  Appalachian  Mountains  to  their  southern 
border.  The  most  important  trees  of' the  Northern  Forest 
are  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  white  cedar,  and  fir.  By  far  the 
most  valuable  species  of  this  forest  is  the  white  pine  which 
has  been  so  extensivelv  used  for  lumber.     The  greater  part 


2l6  THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

of  the  Northern  Forest  has  been  cleared,  but  in  northern 
Maine,  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire,  the  Green 
Mountains  of  Vermont,  the  Adirondacks  of  New  York,  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Lake  States,  and  the  Appalachians 
there  are  still  large  forest  tracts. 

Central  Hardwood  Forest.  —  The  greater  part  of  the 
Central  Hardwood  Forest  occupies  the  drainage  basin  of 
the  Ohio  River.  Part  of  it  lies  west  of  the  Mississippi,  in 
the  states  of  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas. 
The  chief  trees  of  this  hardwood  forest  are  oak,  hickory, 
poplar,  beech,  walnut,  ash,  and  elm.  North  of  the  Ohio 
nearly  all  of  this  forest  has  been  cut  down  to  make  way  for 
farms.  In  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and 
Arkansas  there  are  still  great  forests  that  supply  very  large 
quantities  of  lumber.  Much  of  the  hardwood  lumber  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  flooring  and  interior 
finish  of  houses,  and  agricultural  implements. 

Southern  Forest.  —  The  Southern  Forest  lies  mainly  in 
the  Atlantic  Coast  Plain  and  Gulf  Coast  Plain  of  the  South- 
ern States.  This  forest  consists  mainly  of  pines  that  have 
a  hard,  yellow,  resinous  wood.  These  yellow  pines,  as  they 
are  called,  are  valuable  not  only  for  lumber,  but  they  also 
yield  turpentine  and  tar.  The  cypress,  growing  in  swamps, 
is  another  tree  of  great  value.  Its  wood  is  so  durable  in  con- 
tact with  moisture  that  it  is  in  great  demand  for  shingles, 
boats,  and  tanks.  The  Southern  Forest  furnishes  enormous 
quantities  of  lumber  and  other  timber  products.  Louisiana 
is  the  leading  lumber  state  of  the  Southern  Forest  and  ranks 
second  among  the  states  of  the  Union. 

Rocky  Mountain  Forest.  —  The  Rocky  Mountain  Forest 
occupies  the  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  most 
dense  tracts  of  timber  are  upon  the  western  slopes,  which 


THE    FORESTS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


217 


Making  a  trail  through  a  western  forest. 


have  sufficient  rainfall  for  tree  growth.  Western  pines  and 
other  cone-bearing  trees  constitute  most  of  the  trees  of  this 
forest. 

Pacific  Coast  Forest.  —  Upon  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Coast  Ranges,  Cascade  Mountains,  and  Sierra  Nevada  are 
the  great  forest  areas  of  the  Pacific  Coast  Forest.  The 
most  important  tree  of  this  forest  is  the  Douglas  fir.  Other 
valuable  trees  are  cedar,  spruce,  hemlock,  western  white 
pine,  and  redwood.  The  densest  forests  are  in  Washington, 
upon  the  well-watered  slopes  facing  the  Pacific.  This 
state  leads  all  others  in  the  production  of  lumber.  The 
most  wonderful  trees  in  the  world  are  the  redwoods  and 
"  big  trees  "  of  California,  many  of  which  are  over  300  feet 


21 8  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

high  and  between  2000  and  3000  years  old.  Several  forest 
tracts  containing  these  mammoth  trees  have  been  made 
into  national  parks. 

Forest  Products.  —  Most  of  the  forest  trees  are  cut  down 
and  sawed  into  logs  which  are  hauled  to  mills,  where  they 
are  sawed  into  boards  or  other  forms  of  lumber.  Many 
other  trees  are  cut  down  to  furnish  mine  timbers,  railroad 
ties,  telegraph  poles,  and  firewood.  Spruce  and  hemlock 
are  largely  used  to  make  wood  pulp  from  which  paper  is 
manufactured.  Other  forest  products  are  charcoal,  turpen- 
tine, tar,  tanning  extracts,  and  wood  alcohol.  Game  and 
fish  in  the  forests  of  our  country  furnish  several  million 
dollars'  worth  of  food,  and  milhons  of  dollars  are  realized 
also  from  the  raw  furs  of  forest  animals.  In  the  West 
fnilHons  of  cattle  and  sheep  graze  upon  the  national  forests. 

Forest  Influences.  —  Forests  exert  considerable  influence 
over  the  flow  of  streams  whose  drainage  basins  are  wholly 
or  partly  within  the  forested  area.  A  large  amount  of  the 
rain  is  held  in  the  thick  leaf  mold  on  the  forest  floor.  This 
gradually  soaks  into  the  ground  and  appears  again  in  springs 
several  weeks  later.  Thus  forests  prevent  extreme  floods 
in  time  of  heavy  rain  and  very  low  water  in  times  of  drought. 
In  order  to  keep  some  of  the  rivers  navigable  even  in  dry 
seasons  the  Federal  government  is  buying  wooded  tracts 
near  the  headwaters  of  the  streams  so  that  the  forests  may 
be  kept  permanently  to  regulate  stream  flow.  In  the  irri- 
gation regions  of  the  West  forests  are  maintained  at  the 
headwaters  of  the  streams  that  furnish  water  for  irrigation 
in  order  to  keep  up  the  flow  of  water  throughout  the  whole 
year.  In  the  prairie  regions  of  the  United  States  the 
farmers  plant  groves  of  trees  on  the  windward  side  of  their 
houses  to  protect  them  against  destructive  storms  of  summer 


THE   FORESTS   OF   THE   UNITED  STATES  219 


Wooded  slopes  bordering  Seaghton  Lake,  Maine. 


220 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


and  cold  winds  of  winter.  The  soil  on  steep  wooded  slopes 
is  held  in  place  by  the  roots  of  the  trees.  When  the  trees 
are  cut  down,  the  soil  is  washed  away,  and  the  slopes  are 
left  too  barren  to  support  plant  life.  Such  slopes  should  be 
kept  permanently  in  forest. 

National  Forests.  —  The  United  States  had  such  an 
abundance  of  standing  timber  that  for  many  years  no  one 
dreamed  that  it  could  be  exhausted.  By  and  by,  however, 
people  saw  the  end  of  the  supply  would  soon  come  if  forest 
destruction  was  not  checked.  To  insure  a  permanent 
supply  of  timber,  Congress  in  1891  passed  a  law  that  forests 
on  the  public  lands  could  be  reserved  from  settlement  and 
made  into  national  forests.  To-day  the  United  States  has 
about  140,000,000  acres  in  national  forests,  an  area  equal  to 
that  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Missouri.  Nearly  all  of 
these  national  forests  are  in  the  Western  States ;  some  of  the 
smaller  ones,  however,  are  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country. 


forests 

Natioaal 

parks 


0    100  200  300  -too  JOO 


National  forests  and  national  parks  of  the  United  States. 


THE   FORESTS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


221 


The  Forest  Service.  —  The  Forest  Service,  a  branch  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  has  charge  of  the  national 
forests.  The  trained 
foresters  of  the  Serv- 
ice supervise  lum- 
bering operations  in 
these  forests,  re- 
move dead  and  dis- 
eased trees,  plant 
new  trees,  guard 
the  forests  against 
fires,  and  regulate 
the  grazing  of  live 
stock  within  the 
forest.  The  Forest 
Service,  in  addition 
to  its  care  of  the 
national  forests,  con- 
ducts a  campaign  of 
education  in  for- 
estry. It  gives  in- 
struction    in      such  Ranger  looking  for  fires. 

subjects  as  prevention  of  waste  in  lumbering  and  manufac- 
ture of  wood  products,  increasing  the  productivity  of 
forests,  uses  of  commercial  woods,  methods  of  fighting 
destructive  insects  and  diseases,  fire  prevention,  and  the 
preservation  of  wood  by  chemical  treatment. 

Conclusion.  —  Although  large  areas  of  forests  have  been 
cut  down  in  order  to  furnish  lumber  and  to  make  way  for 
farms,  yet  we  still  have  enormous  areas  of  woodlands. 
Lumbering  and  the  manufacture  of  wood  products  is  one  of 
our  leading  industries.     The  American  people  are  extensive 


22  2  THREE   INDUSTRIAL    NATIONS 

users  of  lumber  and  other  timber  products,  but  the  present 
forests  will  be  ample  to  meet  future  needs  if  they  are  brought 
up  to  their  maximum  yield  and  if  all  avoidable  wastes  are 
prevented  and  the  fullest  possible  utilization  made  of  all 
timber. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Name  and  locate  the  five   forest  regions  of  the  United 
States. 

2.  Which  are  the  two  leading  lumber  states? 

3.  What  are  national  forests? 

4.  What  influences  do  forests  exert  over  floods  ? 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  chief  forest  products. 

6.  Visit  some  factory  where  wood  products  are  manufac- 
tured. 

7.  Make  a  collection  of  difi"erent  kinds  of  wood.     Learn  the 
chief  uses  of  each. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
DOMESTIC    ANIMALS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 

Importance  ot  Domestic  Animals.  —  While  j)lants  are 
very  useful  in  supplying  man  with  the  necessities  of  life, 
animals  are  scarcely  less  important.  They  furnish  meat 
for  food,  and  skins  for  clothing  and  shelter.  By  affording 
means  of  transportation  they  greatly  promoted  civilization 
in  the  early  stages  of  man's  development.  The  North 
American  Indian  was  acquainted  only  with  the  wild  life  of 
the  forest,  and  knew  nothing  of  the  care  and  value  of 
domesticated  fowls,  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses.  As  long  as 
the  game  in  the  forest,  together  with  wild  roots,  herbs,  and 
berries,  were  plentiful,  the  Red  Man  knew  no  want,  for 
hunting  was  his  greatest  joy.  But  when  the  long  cold 
winters  made  game  scarce,  famine  stared  him  in  the  face. 

Longfellow  gives  us  a  vivid  picture  of  the  suffering  at 
such  times : 

O  the  long  and  dreary  winter  ! 
O  the  cold  and  cruel  winter  ! 
Ever  thicker,  thicker,  thicker 
Froze  the  ice  on  lake  and  river; 
Ever  deeper,  deeper,  deeper, 
Fell  the  snow  o'er  all  the  landscape. 
Fell  the  covering  snow,  and  drifted 
Through  the  forest,  round  the  village. 

Hardly  from  his  buried  wigwam 
Could  the  hunter  force  a  passage ; 
With  his  mittens  and  his  snowshoes 
Vainly  walked  he  through  the  forest. 
Sought  for  bird  or  beast  and  found  none. 
Saw  no  track  of  deer  or  rabbit, 
In  the  snow  beheld  no  footprints ; 
In  the  ghastly,  gleaming  forest 
Fell,  and  could  not  rise  from  weakness, 
Perished  there  from  cold  and  hunger. 
223 


224 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


When  the  white  men  arrived,  they  used  the  bison,  deer, 
and  other  wild  animals  for  food,  but  with  their  advanced 
notions  of  living  they  could  not  go  back  to  that  primitive 
condition  of  depending  on  game  alone ;  and  so  from  the 
start  they  introduced  European  animals,  —  chickens,  geese, 
cows,  horses,  swine,  and  sheep  into  this  New  World. 

Present  Rank  of  the  United  States  in  Meat  Production. 
—  The  three  greatest  meat-producing  regions  in  the  world 
are  Australia,  Argentina,  and  the  United  States.  Because 
of  her  excellent  sheep  pastures,  Australia  exports  large 
quantities  of  mutton.  The  boundless  pampas  of  Argen- 
tina, where  the  population  is  still  scarce,  afford  excellent 
feeding  grounds  for  both  sheep  and  cattle ;  therefore  that 
country  supphes  the  world  with  much  beef  as  well  as  mutton. 
Because  of  its  enormous  corn  crop,  our  own  country  ranks 
first  of  all  in  the  production  of  meat  animals,  especially 
in    hogs    and    beef    cattle.     Densely    populated    Europe, 


tVi©Wh»  •t^,^i,,^ 


v.: 


[:achsmai/  dofr, 


Distribution  of  cattle  and  principal  meat-packing  centers  of  the  United 

States, 


DOMESTIC  ANIM.VLS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES       225 

where  there  are  Umited  pastures  and  but  Httle  corn,  depends 
largely  upon  these  three  countries  for  its  meat. 


I  Detroil  Pliotogrupliic  Co 


A  cattle  ranch,  Texas. 


Cattle  Industry.  —  In  1910  in  the  United  States  there 
were  more  than  60,000,000  cattle.  Texas,  Iowa,  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Wisconsin,  Missouri,  Illinois,  New  York,  Min- 
nesota, and  California  are  the  ten  leading  cattle  states. 
This  shows  that  the  industry  is  very  widely  distributed, 
but  that  the  South  is  not  well  represented.  The  largest 
cattle  markets  are  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Omaha,  Kansas  City, 
Sioux  City,  and  Cheyenne. 

Cattle  Ranches  on  the  Plains.  —  In  the  western  moun- 
tains and  plains  where  the  population  is  not  dense,  and 
where  the  rainfall  is  too  scant  for  profitable  agriculture, 
but  sufficient  to  produce  good  pasturage,  there  are  large 
cattle  ranches,  sometimes  thousands  of  acres  in  extent. 


226  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

The  most  noted  ranch  states  are  Texas,  Montana,  Wyo- 
ming, and  Colorado.  Formerly  when  much  of  "  the  plains  " 
was  still  public  land,  the  animals  were  turned  loose  to  wan- 
der at  will  over  wide  ranges  of  territory.  This  is  still  true 
in  a  few  places.  They  practically  take  care  of  themselves, 
summer  and  winter.  These  roaming  cattle  require  about 
twenty-five  acres  each  for  a  year's  support.  Now  that 
public  land  is  becoming  scarce  in  many  places  and  farms 
are  becoming  more  numerous,  men  have  to  fence  in  their 
stock,  and  raise  alfalfa  or  other  feed  for  the  winter  store. 

Cattle  in  the  Corn  Belt.  —  The  cattle  in  the  corn  belt, 
including  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Indiana, 
Kansas,  Ohio,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan,  fare 
even  better  than  those  on  ranches,  for  corn  is  a  very  nutri- 
tious cattle  food.  So  this  is  the  greatest  cattle-raising  sec- 
tion. Much  of  the  corn  is  fed  to  the  cattle  as  silage.  The 
corn  is  cut  while  green,  and  the  stalks,  leaves,  and  ears  are 
stored  in  large  air-tight  wooden  or  concrete  structures 
called  silos.  Kept  from  contact  with  the  air  silage  remains 
green  and  nutritious,  and  is  fed  as  needed  during  the  winter. 

Dairy  Products.  —  About  one  third  of  our  cattle  are 
raised  chiefly  for  milk.  The  production  of  milk  is  largest 
near  the  great  centers  of  population ;  and  the  majority  of 
these  at  present  are  in  the  eastern  and  north  central  parts 
of  the  country.  New  York,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa  have 
the  largest  dairy  interests.  Minnesota,  Illinois,  Texas, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Missouri,  and  Michigan  also  carry  on 
considerable  dairy  business.  Since  1900,  this  industry  has 
been  making  great  progress  in  the  Pacific  States,  especially 
in  the  Willamette  valley. 

Pure  Milk  Supply.  —  Great  interest  is  taken  in  the 
question  of  pure  milk  supply.     Formerly  a  dairyman  and 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES        227 


his  family  cared  for  their  cows  as  best  they  could,  milked 
them  mornings  and  evenings,  and  put  the  milk  into  three- 
or  four-gallon  cans.  In  the  early  morning  one  of  the  men 
peddled  it  among  town  customers,  pouring  a  pint  or  a 
quart  into  each  buyer's  bucket  or  pitcher.  To  some  houses 
he  came  before  the  people  had  risen.  There  he  placed  the 
uncovered  milk  on  the  doorstep,  where  it  absorbed  foul 
air,  dust,  and  even  flies.  At  other  houses  he  arrived  long 
after  breakfast.  These  families  either  had  no  milk  for 
the  morning  meal  or  they  used  what  was  left  from  the 
previous  day.  No  one  complained,  because  people  knew 
of  no  better  way. 
At  the  present  time, 
dairies  are  kept  in 
much  better  sanitary 
condition  than  in  the 
past.  Now  both 
animals  and  barn 
look  as  if  they  had 
a  daily  bath.  In 
many  places  the 
cows  pass  through 
clear  water  to  clean  their  feet  before  entering  their  stalls 
to  be  milked.  The  single  stalls  are  well  partitioned  from 
neighboring  ones,  so  that  the  creatures  may  not  molest 
each  other.  The  barn  is  frequently  whitewashed ;  the 
stalls  are  cleaned  daily,  and  the  milkers  do  their  work  in 
clean  white  trousers  and  jackets.  Then  the  milk  is  bottled, 
chilled,  and  delivered  at  a  regular  hour. 

Where  farmers  have  only  a  few  gallons  to  sell,  they  make 
arrangements  with  the  milk  station  to  collect  the  milk 
twice  daily.     The  collector  gathers  all  he  can  from  a  given 


A  well-kept  dairy  barn. 


228 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


territory,  takes  it  to  the  railroad,  on  which  it  is  carried  by 
steam  or  electric  cars  to  the  milk  station,  which  pays  for 
it  not  by  the  gallon,  but  by  the  amount  of  butter  fat  it 
contains.  There  is  often  great  difference  in  the  size  of  the 
cream  collars  in  various  bottles  of  milk.  This  is  due  to 
the  difference  of  fat  in  the  milk  given  by  cows.  A  gallon 
of  milk  from  one  cow  may  be  worth  twice  as  much  as  the 
same  amount  from  another. 

When  the  milk  from  a  number  of  farmers  arrives  at  the 
milk  station,  it  is  all  poured  into  large  vats,  where  it  is 
pasteurized  and  standardized.  In  pasteurization,  the  bac- 
teria injurious  to  health  are  destroyed.  The  standardiz- 
ing process  thoroughly  mixes  the  milk  from  the  various 
farms  so  that  it  is  uniform  in  quality.  Some  of  the  em- 
ployees are  kept  busy 
scalding  the  bottles  in 
hot  lye  solutions  and 
rinsing  them  with  clear 
water  so  that  they  are 
perfectly  clean.  After 
the  milk  has  been  stand- 
ardized, the  bottles  are 
filled,  and  sealed  by 
machinery  with  a  little 
circular  pasteboard  cap. 
Then  they  are  stored  in 
the  refrigerating  rooms 
until  the  delivery  men 
load  them  shortly  after 
midnight  and  make  their 
lonely  trips  through  the 
A  milk  separator.  quict    streets    while    we 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  OF   THE   UNITED    STATES       229 


are  sleeping.     The  bottle  of  milk  appears  at  our  doorstep 
in  time  for  breakfast  every  morning  of  the  year. 

Butter  and  Cheese.  —  Much  butter  is  manufactured  in 
large  creameries.  The  milk  gathered  from  the  various 
farms  is  poured  into  a  machine  called  a  separator,  which 
separates  the  cream  fat  from  the  thin  milk.  In  a  re\'olving 
churn  driven  by  an 
engine  several  hun- 
dred pounds  of  cream 
are  whipped  and 
kneaded  into  butter, 
which  is  then  salted, 
packed,  and  shipped 
to  near-by  points. 
Most  of  the  cheese  is 
also  machine-made. 
It  is  produced  by 
cooking,  draining,  and  kneading  the  curds  of  sour  milk. 
About  one  fourth  of  the  world's  supply  of  butter  and 
cheese  is  manufactured  in  the  United  States.  While  our 
country  ranks  as  the  greatest  producer  of  dairy  products, 
it  exports  very  little  butter  and  cheese. 

Cooperative  Dairying.  —  Prosperous  dairying  does  not 
always  depend  upon  natural  advantages  alone.  In  some 
ways  the  prairies  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  are  better  fitted 
for  this  business  than  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin.  The 
latter,  however,  make  greater  progress  because  they  have 
formed  cooperative  creameries.  That  means  that  the 
farmers  themselves  own  and  help  manage  the  factories 
and  so  make  all  the  profits ;  while  in  the  states  farther 
west  the  farmers  sell  to  large  private  creameries  that  pay 
much  less  per  pound  for  butter  fat  than  the  cooperative 


Churning  butter. 


230 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


establishments  in  the  North.  This  lesson  of  cooperation 
was  learned  from  little  Denmark,  which  exports  more 
butter  than  any  other  country  in  the  world. 

Butter  Substitutes.  —  Oleomargarine  and  butterine  are 
butter  substitutes  made  of  the  softer  animal  fats  that 
are  pressed  out  of  beef  tallow  and  suet.  After  these  are 
churned  with  sweet  milk  and  cottonseed  oil,  they  are 
kneaded  and  salted  just  as  butter  is.  Oleomargarine  so 
closely  resembles  butter  that  it  is  sometimes  sold  as  butter. 
When  substitutes  are  sold  as  butter,  a  great  injury  is  done 
to  the  dairy  industry.  To  protect  it  and  the  consumer, 
Congress  has  passed  a  law  requiring  honest  labeling  of 
certain  food  articles,  and  prohibiting  the  coloring  of  oleo- 
margarine to  make  it  resemble  butter. 

The  Swine  Industry.  —  The  United  States  produces 
more  swine  than  any  other  country;  indeed,  the  American 


Distribution  of  swine  in  the  United  States.      One  dot  represents  2,500 

swine. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES       231 


A  herd  of  swine. 


farmers  raise  more  hogs  than  Russia,  Germany,  and 
Austria  combined,  the  next  largest  producers.  We  are 
able  to  supply  one  third  of  the  world's  pork  because  of 
our  large  corn  crop,  fifty  per  cent  of  which  is  fed  to 
hogs.  Live  animals  are  not  exported  in  great  numbers, 
but  flesh  goes  into  foreign  lands  in  the  form  of  cured, 
canned,  or  fresh  meat,  or  as  lard  and  other  packing-house 
products. 

Hogs  are  raised  in  every  part  of  the  country,  but  the 
great  swine  region  is  in  the  corn  belt  of  the  North 
Central  States,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  continent.  The 
leading  states  in  1913  were  Iowa,  Illinois,  Missouri, 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  Omaha,  Kansas 
City,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Milwaukee,  Indianapolis,  Cleve- 
land, Buffalo,  and  Cincinnati  carry  on  a  large  pork-pack- 
ing business. 

Sheep  Raising  and  the  Wool  Industry.  —  Sheep  yield 
fiber  for  clothing  and  mutton  for  food  ;  but  man  has  not 
yet  learned  how  to  produce  a  sheep  that  will  yield  both 


232 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


©Fair  it-  Thompson. 


A  sheep  range,  Idaho. 


excellent  meat  and  first-class  wool.  Argentina  and  Aus- 
tralia lead  in  mutton  sheep ;  but  the  United  States  raises 
the  sheep  chiefly  for  its  wool.  Our  earliest  imported  sheep 
were  not  good  wool  producers,  so  26,000  merino  sheep  were 
brought  from  Spain  in  1810,  and  scattered  in  various  sec- 
tions. This  breed  produces  a  very  strong  fiber,  and 
thrives  well  on  the  coarsest  food. 

In  general  sheep  can  get  a  living  on  land  that  will  not 
support  other  animals,  so  they  are  well  adapted  to 
mountainous  regions.  They  do  well  even  on  pastures 
that  have  been  cropped  almost  to  starvation  point  by 
cattle.     For  these  reasons  sheep  raising  has  followed  close 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES        233 

upon  the  heel  of  the  cattle  ranches  in  the  semiarid 
western  plains,  and  the  western  mountains  have  taken 
the  lead  in  sheep  production. 

The  American  Wool  Clip.  —  The  wool  clip  of  the  United 
States  meets  only  two  thirds  of  the  home  needs.  The 
remaining  third,  of  a  finer  quality  than  our  own  and 
used  for  a  better  grade  of  goods,  comes  from  foreign 
lands.  Ohio  and  Michigan  lead  among  the  wool- 
producing  states  of  the  East.  Montana,  Wyoming,  New 
Mexico,  Idaho,  Oregon,  California,  Utah,  and  Colorado 
rank  first  in  the  West.  The  greatest  profit  from  sheep 
raising  comes  from  the  wool  which  is  clipped  from  them. 
Once  a  year,  after  the  warm  weather  of  summer  is  as- 
sured, the  sheep  are  sheared.  Long  ago  this  was  done 
by  hand.  Now  they  are  shorn  of  their  warm  fleeces  in 
a  few  minutes  by  machinery.     The  wool  is   baled   into 


Distribution  of  sheep  in  the  United  States. 

sheep. 


One  dot  represents  2,500 


234 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


bundles  of  several  hundred  pounds  each  and  shipped  to 
various  manufacturing  centers. 

Manufacturing  Woolen  Cloth.  —  Most  of  the  wool  is 
sent  to  eastern  cities,  especially  to  Boston,  the  largest 
wool  market  in  the  United  States  and  the  second  in  the 
world.  From  Boston  the  fleeces  are  distributed  to  various 
cities  to  be  manufactured  into  cloth.     Providence,  Lowell, 

Manchester,  New 
York,  and  Philadel- 
phia have  the  great- 
est woolen  factories 
in  the  country.  The 
last-named  city  and 
the  surrounding 
towns  of  Camden 
and  Chester  weave 
fine  carpets.  To- 
day the  United 
States  manufactures 
more  carpets  than 
any  other  country. 

When  the  fleeces 
reach  the  factory, 
they  are  sorted  ac- 
cording to  quahty  and  length  of  fiber.  Then  they  are 
washed  with  soap  to  remove  the  grease  and  dirt.  In  this 
process  the  very  greasy  fleeces  lose  from  one  half  to  four 
fifths  of  their  weight.  The  grease,  which  sometimes 
amounts  to  three  fifths  of  the  entire  weight,  is  converted 
into  soap.  The  scoured  wool  is  treated  with  acid  to  de- 
stroy all  vegetable  matter  that  may  have  been  left  after 
the  washing.     Next  it  is  combed  and  spun  into  yarn  which 


Wool  sorting. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES       235 

is  woven  into  cloth.  Woolen  fabrics  have  many  different 
names  ;  such  as,  worsted,  flannel,  serge,  broadcloth,  cheviot, 
cassimere,  velvet,  and  plush.  Often  wool  threads  are 
woven  with  cotton  and  silk,  thus  producing  mixed  goods. 
Before  the  cloth  comes  to  us  in  the  form  of  a  garment  it  is 
steamed,  shrunk,  pressed,  measured,  and  carefully  wrapped 
around  a  board,  in  lengths  of  forty  or  fifty  yards.  The 
bundle  is  then  incased  in  paper.  A  number  of  such 
packages  are  placed  in  a  box  and  shipped  to  the  tailors. 

Value  of  our  Sheep  Products.  —  The  annual  wool  clip 
of  the  United  States  is  worth  nearly  100  milHon  dollars. 
Manufacturing  raises  its  value  to  between  300  and  400 
million  dollars.  The  mutton  product  is  worth  about  50 
million.  The  skins  are  made  into  leather  ;  the  tallow  into 
candles ;  the  bones  into  fertilizer.  These  products,  added 
to  the  meat  and  wool,  make  the  sheep  a  profitable  part  of 
our  animal  industry. 

The  Goat  Industry.  —  Goat  raising  is  not  an  important 
industry  in  the  United  States,  although  widely  scattered 
throughout  the  country.  Over  a  third  of  the  goats  are 
Angoras,  many  of  which  are  descended  from  nine  Angoras 
introduced  from  Turkey  in  1849.  About  that  time  an 
American  was  sent  to  Turkey ,  upon  the  Sultan's  request, 
to  do  some  experimenting  in  cotton  raising.  The  ruler 
was  so  pleased  with  the  results,  that  he  gave  the  nine 
goats  as  a  present  to  the  man  who  showed  him  how  to 
raise  cotton. 

The  fleece,  called  mohair,  of  the  Angora  is  sometimes 
nineteen  inches  long.  This  fiber  is  woven  into  cloth  and 
carpets  and  also  a  high  grade  of  plush,  much  used  in 
railway  car  upholstery.  Goats  also  yield  rich  milk,  fine 
pelts  for  rugs  and  robes,  and  excellent  skins  for  leather. 


236 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


They  can  be  easily  raised  on  land  that  is  practically 
valueless  for  farming.  Through  their  browsing,  goats 
help  to  clean  out  shrubs  and  seedling  trees  from  wooded 
localities. 

Poultry  and  Eggs.  —  Last  but  not  least  of  the  domestic 
animals  that  are  raised  for  food  are  fowls  —  chickens, 
geese,  ducks,  and  turkeys.  The  rapidly  increasing  popu- 
lation has  created  a  large  demand  for  poultry  and  eggs. 


A  poultry  farm. 


While  almost  every  farmer  raises  poultry,  yet  many  people 
devote  themselves  entirely  to  this  industry.  Since  corn  is 
well  adapted  to  egg  production  as  well  as  for  fattening  fowls, 
the  corn  belt  exceeds  all  other  regions  in  the  number  of 
poultry.  The  leading  states  are  Iowa,  Illinois,  Missouri, 
Ohio,  Kansas,  and  Indiana. 

Ostrich  Farming.  —  Ostrich  farming  is  a  young  industry 
in  the  United  States.  The  first  birds  were  imported  in 
1882  ;    and  it  took  a  long  time  for  men  to  learn  how  they 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES       237 

can  best  be  raised  in  this  climate.  In  1910  they  numbered 
a  little  over  6000.  They  are  produced  in  Arizona,  Cali- 
fornia, Arkansas,  Florida,  and  Texas.  Dry  sandy  soil 
with  good  drainage  and  irrigation  facilities,  well  adapted 
to  the  raising  of  alfalfa,  is  best  suited  to  successful  ostrich 
production.  As  the  demand  for  ostrich  feathers  increases, 
the  future  prospects  for  this  industry  seem  good.  The 
average  annual  yield  of  feathers  per  bird  is  a  pound  and  a 
quarter,  worth  about  twenty-five  dollars.  A  pair  of  breed- 
ing ostriches  is  worth  about  eight  hundred  dollars ;  a  chick 
six  months  old  brings  a  hundred  dollars. 

Horses.  —  The  remaining  domestic  animals  raised  for 
profit  in  the  United  States  are  horses  and  mules.  They  are 
valuable  for  draft  and  farm  use.  While  raised  in  all  the 
states,  horses  are  most  numerous  in  the  North  and  West. 
The  finest  light  saddle  horses  are  produced  in  the  Ken- 
tucky blue-grass  districts ;  therefore  Lexington  is  the  chief 
race-horse  market  in  the  country.  For  some  time  our 
work  horses  did  not  compare  favorably  with  those  of 
Europe.  But  recently  they  have  been  improved  by  the 
importation  of  high-grade  European  stock.  It  has  not 
been  long  since  the  countries  of  Europe  have  been  willing 
to  buy  our  horses.  Omaha  and  Kansas  City,  in  the  midst 
of  the  corn  and  grazing  districts,  are  the  leading  centers 
for  work  horses. 

Mules.  —  Since  horses  cannot  stand  so  warm  a  climate 
as  mules,  the  latter  are  in  greater  demand  in  the  South. 
At  the  last  census  there  were  twelve  times  as  many  horses 
as  mules  in  the  North,  while  in  the  South  there  were  only 
one  and  a  half  times  as  many.  The  value  of  mules  consists 
in  their  enduring  quality  and  their  ability  to  stand  hard 
usage,  such  as  railroad  construction  work.     The  mule  is 


238 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


irf#»^.»«rf«c«5SJi^»'Bw*«i« 


I  Underwood  &  Underwood 


Stockyards,  Chicago. 


also  receiving  increased  favor  for  farm  use.  One  reason 
for  his  popularity  is  that  the  expense  of  keeping  him  is  less 
than  for  the  horse. 

Stockyards  and  Packing  Houses.  —  Cattle,  hogs,  and 
sheep  raised  for  meat  are  shipped  in  stock  cars  to  the  cities 
where  the  great  packing  houses  are  located.  On  their 
arrival  the  trains  stop  alongside  stockyards,  which  may 
cover  many  acres  and  look  like  cities  laid  out  in  pens, 
separated  by  board  fences.  Each  pen  has  a  gate  leading 
into  the  long  passageways  that  form  the  streets  of  the 
yards.  As  soon  as  the  door  of  the  car  is  opened,  the  ani- 
mals walk  down  inclined  gangways  into  the  narrow  roads. 
Men  and  boys  with  long  wooden  staffs  guide  them  to  their 
various  pens,  where  the  animals  are  fed,  and  inspected  by 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES       239 

prospective  purchasers.  Those  remaining  are  soon  taken 
to  the  packing  houses,  where  they  are  quickly  killed./ 
Within  a  few  minutes  after  the  operation  they  hang  as 
dressed  beef,  pork,  or  mutton  in  the  refrigerators  of  the 
abattoirs.  After  the  meat  has  been  suflfiiciently  chilled,  it  is 
placed  on  the  market. 

To  promote  the  health  of  employees  and  consumers, 
much  attention  is  given  to  the  sanitary  conditions  of  pack- 
ing establishments.  They  must  be  well  lighted,  have  an 
abundant  supply  of  pvire  water,  a  perfect  system  of  im- 
mediate sewage  removal  and  the  very  best  system  of  ven- 
tilation. The  ceilings,  walls,  columns,  and  floors  should 
always  be  perfectly  clean.  Well-lighted  and  thoroughly 
ventilated  dressing  rooms  for  employees  are  a  necessity. 

Exports  of  Animal  Products.  —  While  our  foreign  ship- 
ments of  animal  products  have  been  very  large  in  the  past 
and  are  still  an  important  part  of  our  exports,  there  has 
been  an  annual  decrease  for  several  years.  This  is  due  to 
a  number  of  causes.  Our  growing  population  has  decreased 
the  surplus  supply.  Argentina,  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
and  South  Africa  have  come  in  as  competitors.  Great 
Britain  is  reducing  her  purchases  from  us  because  she  is  so 
well  supplied  by  her  colonies.  However,  she  still  buys 
about  half  our  meat  exports. 

Refrigeration  of  Meat.  —  The  exportation  of  meat,  fish, 
oysters,  fruit,  dairy  products,  and  other  perishable  food 
would  be  out  of  the  question  if  we  had  no  means  of  pre- 
serving them  while  on  the  journey.  The  world's  trade  has 
been  greatly  increased  since  1875  by  cold  storage  devices 
used  in  cars  and  steamers.  The  first  meat  carried  in  a 
refrigerator  car  was  sent  from  Chicago  to  Jersey  City, 
when  our  country  was  a  hmidred  years  old.     Before  the 


240 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


days  of  cold  storage  live  animals  for  meat  were  exported 
on  cattle  ships. 

Preserved  Meats  and  Extract  Products.  —  There  are 
other  means  whereby  meat  products  may  be  transported 
long  distances  and  stored  many  months.  Beef,  pork,  fish, 
and  mutton  may  be  salted,  dried,  canned,  or  smoked.     The 

fat  of  cattle  and 
hogs  is  rendered 
into  lards  and  cook- 
ing oils.  Part  of 
the  meat  is  ground 
up,  seasoned,  and 
pressed  into  sau- 
sages, which  can  be 
smoked  and  pre- 
served for  months. 
We  even  extract  the 
juice  from  the  meat 
and  seal  it  in  small 
jars,  or  compress  it 
into  broth  tablets. 

Animal  By-prod- 
ucts. —  The  dis- 
covery of  uses  for 
every  part  of  cattle, 
hogs,  sheep,  goats, 
and  poultry  has  added  millions  to  our  wealth  and  many 
conveniences  to  our  daily  living.  Our  great  cattle  and  sheep 
industries  have  given  the  United  States  the  lead  in  the  manu- 
facture of  leather  footwear.  Millions  of  boots  and  shoes 
are  made  in  Brockton,  Lynn,  and  other  Massachusetts  towns, 
and  also  in  New  York,  Rochester,  Philadelphia,  Cincinnati, 


©  Underwood  &  Underwood. 

Meat  packing. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES       24 1 

Chicago,  and  St.  Louis.  Rawhide  is  made  into  ropes,  ma- 
chinery belts,  and  whips.  A  writing  parchment  and  a  book- 
binding material  are  made  of  the  skins  of  calves,  goats,  and 
sheep.  Dressed  sheepskins  also  make  fine  rugs.  Pig- 
skins are  made  into  saddles  and  satchels.  Horse  flesh  is 
eaten  in  several  European  countries,  France  and  Germany, 


Loading  a  refrigerator  car  with  meats. 


for  example.  Horsehide  is  manufactured  into  shoe  leather, 
saddles,  and  razor  strops.  Gloves  are  made  of  the  skins 
of  lambs,  goats,  and  other  animals. 

From  the  tallow  are  produced  oleomargarine,  lubricants, 
leather  dressing,  soap,  and  candles.  The  feet,  hide  cuttings, 
and  sinews  are  turned  into  gelatin  and  sizing.  Combs, 
buttons,  chemicals,  handles  for  knives,  toothbrushes,  and 
umbrellas  are  manufactured  from  the  bones,  horns,  and 
hoofs.  Bones  are  also  converted  into  glue,  charcoal  filter, 
and  boneblack.  The  long  tail  hairs  of  cows  and  horses 
are  used  for  haircloth  and  bowstrings  for  musical  instru- 
ments.    Pepsin  is  prepared  from  the  lining  of  the  stomachs, 


242  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

sausage  casings  are  made  of  the  intestines,  and  fertilizer 
is  obtained  from  the  refuse  parts  of  all  domestic  animals. 
The  short  body  hair  is  made  into  roofing  felt  and  is  mixed 
with  lime  to  form  plaster.  Feathers  are  made  into  pillows, 
and  wool  makes  the  most  serviceable  winter  clothing.  Is 
there  any  doubt  that  animals  play  a  valuable  part  in  the 
civiUzation  and  advancement  of  man? 

Improving  American  Animals.  —  Man  has  made  great 
improvements  in  domestic  animals.  The  colonists  brought 
their  stock  with  them  from  England,  Holland,  and  other 
European  countries.  The  greater  number  of  American 
cattle  have  descended  from  these.  Not  until  the  nineteenth 
century  was  any  interest  taken  in  purity  of  breed,  but 
since  then  animal  breeding  has  received  considerable  atten- 
tion. Men  especially  interested  in  this  field  have  formed 
cattle,  swine,  sheep,  and  poultry  associations  which  hold 
annual  conventions  for  the  discussion  of  vital  questions. 
There  are  more  than  100,000  stock  raisers  who  produce 
only  pure-bred  animals.  In  recent  years  good  breeds 
have  been  imported  from  Europe,  where  stock  raising  is 
studied  with  great  care.  By  intelligent  experimenting, 
men  have  learned  how  to  breed  sheep  for  mutton  or  wool, 
horses  for  speed  or  hard  work,  and  cows  for  milk  or  beef. 
Greater  profits  have  resulted  from  feeding  to  stock  the 
food  best  adapted  to  produce  desired  qualities  of  flesh, 
wool,  or  milk. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  —  The  most  progressive 
nations  are  making  careful  studies  of  the  diseases  of  domes- 
tic animals,  in  the  hope  of  eventually  stamping  them  out. 
The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  a  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  which  is  giving  much  attention  to  all 
matters  pertaining  to  animal  welfare.     They  publish  the 


DOMESTIC   ANIM.\LS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES       243 

results  of  their  investigations  and  experiments  in  bulletins, 
which  are  distributed  among  farmers  and  stockmen.  An 
important  work  of  the  Bureau  is  the  inspection  of  meat  in 
packing  houses.  All  meat  for  export  and  for  interstate 
trade  must  be  examined  by  the  Federal  inspectors.  Thus 
consumers  are  protected  from  diseased  meat. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Explain  how  the  development  of  the  cattle  industry  de- 
pended upon  inventions. 

2.  What  animal  serves  man  most  in  supplying  material  for 
clothing  ? 

3.  Make  as  complete  a  wool  exhibit  as  possible. 

4.  Color  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States,  showing  the 
chief  districts  in  which  cattle  are  raised.  In  which  sheep 
are  raised.     In  which  horses  are  raised. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  names  of  canned  and  preserved  meats 
that  you  find  on  the  market  or  in  advertisements. 

6.  Prepare  an  exhibit  of  pictures  of  domestic  animals,  their 
food,  shelter,  and  by-products. 

7.  Tell  how  you  would  ship  a  load  of  hogs  from  an  Iowa 
farm  to  Chicago.  A  cargo  of  meat  from  Chicago  to  Liverpool. 
To  Hamburar. 


CHAPTER   XVII 
FISHERIES    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

A  discussion  of  the  animal  wealth  of  our  country  would 
be  incomplete  if  we  overlooked  fish.  This  country  first 
entered  its  commercial  career  by  the  export  of  fish  in  ad- 
dition to  lumber  and  tobacco.  To-day  the  United  States 
has  fishery  resources  valued  at  $55,000,000  a  year,  which 
give  employment  to  150,000  fishermen,  and  10,000  wage- 
earners  in  canning  and  preserving  establishments. 

Fishing  Grounds  of  the  United  States.  —  The  fishing 
grounds  adjoining  the  United  States  are  well  distributed 
along  the  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and  Pacific  coasts.  The  Great 
Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  and  many  other  rivers  afford 
excellent  inland  fishing  facilities.  To  these  must  be  added 
the  large  resources  of  Alaskan  waters. 

New  England  Fisheries.  —  The  largest  ocean  harvests  of 
this  country  are  landed  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts.  The 
earhest  New  England  settlers  were  happy  when  they  found 
that  the  coasts  were  teeming  with  the  finest  of  cod,  halibut, 
shad,  mackerel,  and  herring.  These  fish  are  a  great  source 
of  food  and  of  wealth  to  the  people,  even  to  this  day. 
Owing  to  the  shallow  waters  of  the  many  inlets  of ,  the 
North  Atlantic  section,  which  form  fine  feeding  and  spawn- 
ing grounds,  many  fish  are  caught  directly  off  the  coast  by 
the  shore-line  fishermen,  who  are  usually  independent 
workers,  each  the  sole  master  of  his  boat. 

The  deep-sea  fishing  carried  on  in  some  cases  as  far  as 
two  hundred  miles  from  shore,  or  as  far  north  as  New- 

244 


FISHERIES   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


245 


foundland,  a  thousand  miles  away,  is  done  by  large  fast- 
sailing  schooners  having  the  best  of  outfits.  There  are 
comfortable  quarters  and  stores  of  good  food  for  the  men ; 
and  water  tanks  and  all  sorts  of  contrivances  for  cleaning 
and  salting  the  fish  as  fast  as  they  are  caught.  While  the 
boats  are  usually 
owned  by  rich  com- 
panies whose  head- 
quarters are  in 
Gloucester,  Boston, 
or  Provincetown,  the 
fishermen  take  the 
keenest  interest  in 
their  work,  for  this 
is  a  cooperative  busi- 
ness in  which  the 
employees  share  in 
the  profits  of  the  re- 
turns. The  captains 
of  the  ships  know 
the  fishing  grounds 
and  understand  the 
weather  conditions 
for  fishing  as  well  as 
the  gardener  under- 
stands his  soil,  drain- 
age, and  the  climatic  conditions  that  will  lead  to  certain  suc- 
cess. The  fishing  is  usually  done  not  from  the  schooner,  but 
from  small  dories  that  are  let  down  into  the  water  from  the 
deck  of  the  larger  vessel.  A  large  crew  can  thus  be  scattered 
over  a  considerable  area  with  several  men  in  each  boat.  The 
dories  are  emptied  into  the  schooner  as  soon  as  they  are 


Fishing  boats  in  Boston  harbor. 


246 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


filled ;  and  when  the  latter  is  loaded,  it  returns  to  the  port 
from  which  it  started.  There  the  fish  are  sold  in  the 
markets,  or  dried,  or  canned,  and  shipped  to  other  inland 
cities. 

Massachusetts  surpasses  all  other  New  England  states  in 
its  sea  products,  especially  in  cod ;  Connecticut  ranks 
second,  leading  in  oysters ;  and  Maine,  with  its  many  in- 
dentations, islands,  and  rocky  shores,  ranks  third  and  leads 
in  lobsters. 

Risks  and  Hardships  of  Fishing.  —  While  this  free  life 
on  the  sea  is  alluring,  there  are  many  serious  hardships 
connected  with  it,  especially  for  the  deep-sea  fishermen. 
The  "  banks  "  off  Newfoundland  are  often  enveloped  in 
dense  fogs,  which  hide  approaching  steamers  and  icebergs, 
that  without  a  moment's  notice  dash  into  and  shatter  the 
helpless  dories,  and  sometimes  even  the  large  schooners. 


Lobster  hatchery,  Buzzards  Bay,  Massachusetts. 


FISHERIES   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  247 

Sudden  violent  storms  drive  the  frail  boats  ruthlessly  about 
on  the  wild  waves  and  sometimes  capsize  them.  Occa- 
sionally a  boat  is  driven  so  far  away  from  all  the  others 
that  it  is  impossible  to  get  back  to  the  food  supply  in  time 
to  save  the  men  from  starvation.  While  the  men  are  out 
struggling  with  untamed  nature,  their  families  are  worry- 
ing and  praying  for  them  at  home,  sometimes  only  to  learn 
in  the  end  that  the  head  of  a  household  will  never  return. 


(£)  Dttruil  J'ltuluuiatJhic  Cu. 

Oyster  dredging. 

Fisheries  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States.  —  The  greatest 
commercial  returns  of  our  country  from  the  fishing  industry 
are  netted  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  group,  where  New  York 
and  New  Jersey  are  the  foremost  producers.  This  is  the 
most  densely  populated  region  in  the  United  States,  which 
fact,  together  with  transportation  facilities,  and  the  adja- 
cent inlets  and  estuaries  well  stocked  with  oysters,  shad, 


248  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

crabs,  and  menhaden,  accounts  for  the  extensive  fishing 
industry.  The  oyster  fisheries  centered  about  Long 
Island  Sound,  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  Delaware  Bay  yield  a 
third  of  the  entire  oyster  output  of  the  United  States  and 
are  the  most  noted  oyster  beds  in  the  world.  This  is  by 
far  the  most  important  sea  product  of  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States.  One  of  the  chief  industries  of  Baltimore  is  the 
canning  and  preserving  of  oysters.  The  United  States 
sends  annually  thousands  of  barrels  of  oysters  to  Europe. 
So  great  has  been  the  demand  for  this  food  that  there  is 
danger  of  exhausting  the  supply.  Therefore,  oyster  farms 
are  cultivated  with  as  much  care  as  grain  fields.  To  in- 
crease the  supply,  countless  young  oysters  are  planted  in 
the  bays  and  estuaries  along  the  Atlantic. 

Fishing  Industries  of  the  South.  —  The  chief  fishing  in- 
dustries of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States  are  those  of 
oysters,  shrimps,  and  large  green  Florida  turtles.  Florida 
is  also  renowned  for  its  sponges,  of  which  it  markets  over 
half  a  million  dollars'  worth  annually.  Sponges  are  the 
fibrous  skeletons  of  large  masses  of  jelly-like  animals,  which 
grow  on  rocks  about  a  hundred  feet  below  sea  level  They 
are  torn  from  their  bed  by  three-pronged  forks.  The 
living  matter  soon  decays  and  leaves  the  framework.  This 
is  the  sponge  of  commerce. 

Fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes.  —  Whitefish,  lake  trout, 
sturgeon,  herring,  blue  pike,  and  yellow  perch  are  the  chief 
products  of  the  Great  Lakes,  most  of  them  being  taken 
from  the  waters  west  of  Niagara  Falls.  Formerly  more 
than  a  million  pounds  of  fish  were  obtained  annually  from 
the  lakes,  but  the  small-meshed  nets,  used  by  the  fishermen, 
caught  countless  young  fish,  which  being  unfit  for  use 
were  left  to  die  on  the  shores.     Thus  fishing  in  the  lakes 


FISHERIES  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


249 


has  been  seriously  injured,  in  spite  of  all  that  the  fish  com- 
mission has  done  to  restock  the  waters  with  great  numbers 
of  small  fry. 

Pacific  Fisheries.  —  The  salmon  of  the  West,  abundant 
along  the  Pacific  coast  from  Alaska  to  San  Francisco,  are 
the  most  interesting  of  all  our  fishes.  These  fish  begin  and 
end  their  lives  in  the  fresh  waters  of  inland  rivers ;  but 
by  far  the  largest 
part  of  their  exist- 
ence is  spent  in  the 
salt  waters  of  the 
ocean  near  the 
mouth  of  some  river 
or  in  a  shallow  in- 
dentation along  the 
coast.  Salmon  fish- 
eries, extending  from 
the  Golden  Gate  to 
Puget  Sound,  are  the 
most  valuable  in  the 
United  States,  with 
the  exception  of 
the  oyster  grounds. 
The  largest   salmon 


Salmon  fishing  in  Puget  Sound. 


canneries  are  situated  on  the  Columbia  River  and  Puget 
Sound.  The  first  place  in  value  among  our  true  fishes 
belongs  to  the  salmon.  Only  one  other  species  surpasses 
them  in  the  world,  and  that  is  the  sea  herring. 

A  Bit  of  Salmon  History.  —  Five  important  varieties  of 
salmon,  ranging  in  size  from  eight  to  sixty  pounds,  with 
occasional  specimens  of  over  a  hundred  pounds,  abound  in 
the  United  States,  especially  in  the  streams  of  Oregon. 


250  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

Washington,  Idaho,  and  Montana.  When  the  salmon  are 
about  ready  to  lay  their  eggs,  they  leave  the  salt  ocean 
waters  and  start  a  long  journey,  sometimes  of  2000  miles, 
up  a  convenient  stream.  This  river  is  frequently  the  one 
in  which  they  themselves  were  born.  So  strong  are  the 
salmon  at  this  time  that  they  are  able  to  make  these  trips 
against  the  swiftest  currents,  cataracts,  and  even  over  falls 
ten  feet  high.  When  they  have  reached  the  spot  chosen 
as  the  birthplace  of  the  young,  the  female  lays  several 
thousand  eggs  and  leaves  them  to  the  mercy  of  nature ; 
for  both  parents  die  even  before  the  eggs  are  hatched. 
Most  of  the  spawning  occurs  in  the  fall  and  the  eggs  hatch 
several  weeks  later.  The  chances  for  a  salmon  to  develop 
from  the  egg  to  a  full-grown  fish  are  very  small.  In  the 
first  place,  from  three  fifths  to  four  fifths  of  the  eggs  are 
eaten  by  other  fish.  Of  those  that  are  hatched  so  many 
are  devoured  either  in  the  home  nest  or  on  the  trip  to  the 
ocean  that  only  one  or  two  per  cent  of  all  the  eggs  live  to 
reach  full  size.  To  prevent  this  enormous  loss  the  Bureau 
of  Fisheries  has  constructed  hatcheries  in  which  salmon 
eggs  are  secured  and  hatched,  and  the  young  are  cared  for 
until  able  to  shift  for  themselves.  As  a  result,  eighty-five 
per  cent  of  the  eggs  are  developed  into  good-sized  fish. 

Catching  Salmon.  —  The  salmon  industry  began  about 
fifty  years  ago.  As  soon  as  canning  and  refrigeration  were 
introduced  it  grew  so  rapidly  that  extinction  of  the  fish 
was  imminent.  The  Columbia  River  fishermen  work  during 
July  and  August  when  the  salmon  are  starting  on  their 
inland  journey.  Then  the  river  is  filled  with  the  finest 
fish.  They  are  caught  in  gill  nets,  traps,  or  fish  wheels. 
The  gill  net,  over  a  thousand  feet  long  and  forty  feet  wide, 
is  stretched  between  the  two  boats  across  the  river  in  the 


FISHERIES   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


251 


path  of  the  salmon.  The  upper  edge  floats  on  the  surface 
of  the  water,  buoyed  up  by  cork,  and  the  lower  edge  is 
held  in  place  by  weights.  The  meshes  of  the  net  permit 
the  head  of  the  fish  to  go  through,  but  not  the  body.  The 
gills  prevent  the  captives  from  backing  out.  Thus  the 
salmon  are  held  fast  until  taken  out  by  the  men.  In  swift 
currents  the  fish  are  dipped  up  in  wire  nets  that  swing  from 
the  rim  of  water  wheels.  The  wheels  are  fastened  to  piers 
extending  from  the  banks  of  the  stream ;  and  are  kept  in 
motion  by  the  moving  water.  Salmon  traps  are  made  of 
netting  fastened  to  a  circle  of  posts  in  the  water,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  unsuspecting  fish  easily  finds  its  way  into 
them.     There  they  remain  until  removed  by  the  men. 

Canning  Salmon.  —  All  along  the  lower  Columbia  are 
many  canning  establishments  where  the  fish  are  prepared 
for  the  market.  As 
soon  as  the  salmon 
are  delivered  at  the 
factories  they  are 
cleaned,  canned, 
cooked,  and  labeled 
so  quickly  that  it 
almost  seems  to  be 
done  by  magic. 
The  head,  fins,  and 
tail  are  cut  off. 
The  body  is  scraped 
inside  and  out,  and  given  a  final  washing.  Then  they  are 
cut  into  the  right  lengths  for  the  cans,  which  are  packed 
and  sealed  by  machinery.  A  small  venthole  is  left  in  the 
top  of  the  can  until  the  contents  have  been  cooked.  The 
opening  is  then  sealed ;   and  the  cans  are  cooled,  cleaned, 


Salmon  canning. 


252 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


and  labeled.  Finally  they  are  packed  in  cases  and  shipped 
to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Alaskan  Fisheries.  —  The  Alaskan  waters  are  exceed- 
ingly profitable  fishing  grounds.  Salmon,  cod,  and  halibut 
abound.  The  seal  fisheries  have  more  than  paid  for  Alaska. 
Since  that  peninsula  and  the  adjoining  islands  were  pur- 
chased from  Russia  in  1867  for  $7,200,000,  the  United 
States  government  has  received  $9,000,000  for  leases  giving 
certain  companies  the  privilege  of  catching  seals  in  these 
waters. 

The  largest  seal-breeding  place  in  the  world  comprises 
the  five  rocky,  desolate  Pribilof  Islands  in  Bering  Sea. 
About  the  first  of  May  the  males  arrive  on  these  islands 
from  their  winter  quarters  in  warmer  southern  seas.  The 
females,  called  cows,  arrive  at  the  rookeries,  as  the  seal 
ledges  of  the  Bering  Islands  are  called,  about  the  first  of 


Seals  on  beach,  Alaska. 


FISHERIES   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES  253 

June.  The  young  males,  known  as  bachelors,  on  arriving 
at  the  islands  herd  together  on  the  outskirts  of  the  rookeries. 
It  is  these  young  males  that  are  killed  for  their  skins.  A 
day  or  two  after  the  arrival  of  the  females,  the  young  seals 
or  pups  are  born.  A  week  or  two  later  their  mothers  enter 
the  neighboring  waters  in  search  of  food  for  themselves, 
returning  at  intervals  to  nourish  their  young.  The  males 
remain  on  the  islands  until  August,  living  on  the  fat  they 
have  accumulated  during  their  winter  stay  at  sea.  Then 
they  go  to  sea  in  search  of  food.  The  pups  leave  the 
rookeries  about  November. 

International  Seal  Agreements.  —  Since  all  nations  may 
fish  without  restriction  anywhere  in  the  ocean  beyond  the 
three-mile  Hmit,  a  large  number  of  seals,  many  of  them 
mothers,  were  killed  and  captured  in  the  open  seas.  So 
many  were  killed  at  sea  that  the  extinction  of  these  animals 
was  almost  sure  to  occur.  To  prevent  this,  Russia,  Japan, 
England,  and  the  United  States  signed  a  treaty  in  191 1 
which  provides  punishment  for  any  one  who  kills  seals  in 
the  deep  waters  of  the  Pacific  north  of  the  thirtieth  parallel 
of  latitude.  They  may  be  killed  only  on  land,  between 
December  and  April ;  and  no  one  is  permitted  to  kill  a 
female.  By  this  treaty  it  is  hoped  that  the  number  of 
seals  will  increase  and  that  the  Alaskan  seal  fisheries  may 
be  a  permanent  industry. 

Whaling.  —  Another  profitable  sea  animal  that  lives  in 
the  cold  northern  waters  is  the  whale.  Many  people 
erroneously  think  it  is  a  fish.  The  gills,  necessary  for  a 
wholly  aquatic  life,  are  wanting  in  the  whale ;  so  it  must 
come  to  the  surface  at  regular  intervals  to  get  a  fresh  supply 
of  air.  Before  the  Civil  War,  whaling  was  an  important 
American  industry,  because  it  yielded  oil  and  whalebone, 


254 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


two  products  for  which  there  were  no  substitutes.  The 
whaHng  headquarters  then  were  at  New  Bedford,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  most  of  the  whales  were  caught  off  the  coast 
of  Greenland.  Lately  mineral  and  vegetable  oils  have 
been  discovered  which  partly  take  the  place  of  the  animal 
oil.  The  whalebone  has  been  partially  replaced  by  cellu- 
loid, rubber,  and  other  products.  These  changes,  added  to 
the  scarcity  of  whales,  have  greatly  reduced  the  extent  of 
whaling.  In  the  meantime  the  headquarters  have  shifted 
to  San  Francisco.     Most  of  the  right  whales  are  caught  in 


Cutting  up  a  whale  to  obtain  whalebone  and  oil,  Newfoundland. 


FISHERIES   Ol'    THE    UNITED    STATES  255 

the  Arctic  Ocean,  but  sperm  whales  are  captured  in  the 
Indian  Ocean. 

After  a  whale  is  sighted,  a  harpoon  is  shot  at  it  from 
the  ship  or  launch.  The  dead  monster  is  then  fastened  to 
the  side  of  the  vessel.  The  fat  is  removed  from  it  and 
transferred  to  the  ship,  where  from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand 
gallons  of  oil  are  rendered  out  of  it.  The  horny,  fringed 
sheets  of  whalebone  ten  feet  long,  attached  to  the  upper 
jaw,  are  worth  from  three  to  four  dollars  a  pound.  The 
sperm  whale  has  no  whalebone  but  is  valuable  for  its  sperm 
oil,  which  is  manufactured  into  candles  and  ointments.  It 
also  yields  a  fragrant  substance,  called  ambergris,  used  in 
making  perfumes.  The  teeth  often  serve  as  a  substitute 
for  ivory. 

By-products.  —  The  chief  use  of  fish  and,  indeed,  most 
water  animals  is  for  food.  But  they  yield  many  other  valu- 
able by-products  as  well,  which  give  rise  to  a  number  of  re- 
lated occupations.  For  example,  glue  and  fertilizers  are 
manufactured  from  the  skin,  bones,  and  other  refuse  parts 
of  fish.  Fish  glue  is  used  in  making  court  plasters,  and  on 
postage  stamps.  Cod  fiver  oil  is  noted  for  its  medicinal 
qualities.  Isinglass  is  obtained  from  the  swimming  bladders 
of  fish. 

Future  Fish  Supply.  —  Such  large  numbers  of  fish  and 
other  water  animals  have  been  taken  from  our  streams, 
lakes,  and  coast  waters  that  many  of  our  fisheries  are 
threatened  with  extinction.  To  repair  the  losses  already 
sustained  and  to  prevent  still  further  depletion  the  national 
government  and  several  of  the  states  have  created  fish 
commissions,  whose  duty  it  is  to  increase  the  quantity 
and  improve  the  quality  of  the  fish  supply  of  the  United 
States.     The   United   States   Bureau   of   Fisheries   makes 


256  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

careful  studies  of  the  habits  and  diseases  of  various  species ; 
for  example,  salmon  and  oysters.  The  rivers,  lakes,  and 
coast  waters  are  stocked  with  young  fish.  Men  gather 
eggs  from  the  spawning  grounds,  hatch  them  artificially, 
and  take  charge  of  the  young  until  they  can  care  for. them- 
selves, at  which  time  they  are  set  free  in  the  rivers  and  lakes. 
Fish  eggs  are  sometimes  imported  from  other  countries  so 
that  new  kinds  may  be  developed  here. 

Questions 

1.  Which  are  more  important,  land  or  sea  animals? 

2.  The  food  of  many  land  animals  consists  of  vegetation. 
What  furnishes  the  food  for  the  millions  of  fish  in  the  ocean  ? 

3.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  indicate  the 
various  important  fishing  districts. 

4.  Prepare  an  exhibit  of  pictures  of  as  many  varieties  of  fish 
as  possible.     How  do  Alaskan  salmon  reach  Chicago  ? 

5.  Describe  one  of  your  own  fishing  experiences. 

6.  Ask  your  marketman  where  his  fish  came  from. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

MINERAL   WEALTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 
THE    METALS 

Classes  of  Mineral  Products.  —  There  are  two  classes  of 
minerals,  —  metallic  and  nonmctallic.  The  first  group  in- 
cludes iron,  gold,  silver,  copper,  zinc,  lead,  quicksilver, 
and  many  others.  The  second  group  includes  building 
stone,  clay,  coal,  petroleum,  and  gas. 

Iron.  —  With  the  possible  exception  of  coal,  iron  is  our 
most  valuable  mineral.  At  present  we  are  producing  about 
one  half  of  the  world's  annual  iron  output.  Minnesota, 
Michigan,  Alabama,  New  York,  and  Wisconsin  produce 
about  nine  tenths  of  the  total  iron  output  of  the  United 
States. 


<^^Iron  ore  deposits. 
Thu  areas  in  solid  black 
iudicatc  mining  re^ons. 


Iron  ore  regions  of  the  United  States. 
257 


258 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


An  open  iron  mine,  Minnesota.     The  steam  shovel  is  scooping  up  the 
ore  and  placing  it  in  cars. 

Lake  Superior  District.  —  The  Lake  Superior  region  is 
the  greatest  iron  producer  in  the  world.  The  iron  Hes  so 
near  the  surface  that  it  is  mined  with  unusual  ease  and 
little  cost.  Since  the  close  of  the  last  century,  mining  ma- 
chinery has  been  so  much  improved  that  it  has  largely  dis- 
placed hand  labor  and  greatly  reduced  the  expense  of 
excavation  and  transportation.  Enormous  steam  shovels 
scoop  the  reddish  ore  from  the  open  pits  of  the  mines  into 
freight  cars,  which  take  it  to  near-by  lake  ports.  Then  it 
is    carried    in    vessels    to    iron-manufacturing    cities,    like 


MINERAL   WEALTH   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


259 


Chicago,  Gary,  and  Cle\cland.  From  Cleveland  and  other 
Lake  Erie  ports  much  of  the  ore  is  shipped  by  railroad  to 
Pittsburgh  and  other  neighboring  cities.  The  Superior 
field  lacks  coal,  and  therefore  the  iron  ore  is  shii)ped  by 
water  to  the  great  manufacturing  cities  near  the  coal 
fields.  Millions  of  tons  of  raw  iron,  looking  very  much 
hke  ordinary  soil,  are  received  by  the  many  smelting  fur- 
naces every  year.  From  the  iron-smelting  centers,  vast 
quantities  of  pig  iron,  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  and  steel 
are  sent  out  by  rail  and  boat  to  Detroit,  Buffalo,  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  Indianapolis, 
and  scores  of  other  cities  w^here  these  semi-raw  products 
are  manufactured  into  farming  implements,  printing 
presses,  stoves,  sewing  machines,  automobiles,  locomotives, 
ships,  wire,  nails,  pins,  and  hundreds  of  other  articles. 


Molten  iron  pouring  into  the  molds    Breaking  into  bars  the  pig  noii  tluit 
of  a  pig  iron  machine.  has  solidified  in  the   grooves  in 

the  sand. 

Leading  Iron  Cities.  —  Pittsburgh,  in  the  heart  of  the 
richest  coal  field  in  the  United  States,  carries  on  the  greatest 
iron  and  steel  business.     Chicago  and  Gary,  which  lie  near 


26o 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


the  Superior  iron  mines  just  north  of  them  and  the  Illinois 
and  Indiana  coal  mines  just  south,  are  the  next  in  impor- 
tance. Birmingham,  Alabama,  is  favorably  located  with 
reference  to  coal,  iron,  and  limestone  deposits;  hence  it 
ranks  third  in  this  class  of  manufactures.  It  does  such  a 
large  business  in  iron  and  steel  that  it  has  earned  for  itself 
the  name,  "  Pittsburgh  of  the  South."  Colorado  has  large 
deposits  of  limestone,  coal,  and  iron  ;  and  Pueblo  in  that 
state  is  the  leading  city  of  the  Western  States  in  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  steel. 

Copper.  —  After  iron,  our  most  valuable  metallic  mineral 


•&  DiUuit  I'iibll-i)Ling  Co. 

Pouring  copper  into  molds,  Michigan.     In  front  is  a  pile  of  ingots  taken 
from  the  molds. 


MINERAL  WEALTH   (W   THE    UNITED   STATES         26 1 

is  copper.  Next  to  silver,  copper  is  the  best  conductor  of 
electricity ;  and  its  chief  use  is  for  manufacturing  electrical 
appliances.  The  marvelous  increase  in  the  uses  of  elec 
tricity  has  made  a  great  demand  for  this  metal.  It  is  also 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  boilers,  and  for  roofing  houses 
and  sheathing  the  bottoms  of  ships.  Copper  mixed  with 
tin  makes  bronze  ;  when  mixed  with  zinc,  it  produces  brass. 

Chile  used  to  be  the  leader  in  the  production  of  copper ; 
now  the  first  place  is  held  by  the  United  States.  We 
supply  more  than  half  of  the  world's  annual  output  of  this 
metal.  For  a  long  time  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior  in 
Michigan  were  the  greatest  copper  region  on  the  globe. 
The  metal  occurs  there  in  almost  a  pure  state.  Another 
important  copper  section  is  the  Butte  district  of  Mon- 
tana ;  but  the  greatest  producer  to-day  is  Arizona.  A 
large  part  of  our  annual  copper  output  goes  to  Europe, 
mainly  to  Netherlands,  Germany,  France,  and  Great 
Britain.  Our  rivals  in  copper  production  are  Mexico, 
Spain,  and  Japan. 

Lead.  —  With  the  progress  of  industry  and  science,  lead 
becomes  more  and  more  useful.  It  is  employed  in  roofing 
houses,  lining  cisterns,  making  plumbing  pipes,  and  for 
manufacturing  metal  type,  shot,  white  lead,  solder,  and 
pewter  ware.  This  metal  is  found  in  workable  quantities 
in  only  four  states  :  Missouri,  Idaho,  Utah,  and  Colorado. 
With  the  exception  of  the  first,  they  are  all  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  section,  where  the  lead  is  often  found  in  lead- 
silver  deposits.  Our  country  produces  more  than  any 
other  nation,  or  a  third  of  the  world's  annual  supply  of 
lead. 

Zinc.  —  Zinc  is  a  hard  mineral  and  is  generally  found 
with  copper  or  lead.     Its  hardness,  together  with  its  power 


262  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

to  resist  the  rusting  effects  of  water,  make  it  very  useful  for 
drain  spouts  and  gutters  of  houses.  Galvanized  buckets 
are  treated  with  a  zinc  solution  and  thus  are  able  to  render 
far  more  satisfactory  service  than  tin  buckets  or  even  the 
old  oaken  buckets.  Almost  all  the  zinc  of  the  world  is 
produced  by  the  United  States,  Germany,  and  Belgium. 
The  United  States  ^delds  about  a  third  of  the  entire  amount. 
Zinc  mining  is  carried  on  in  ten  or  twelve  states,  but  Mis- 
souri leads  them  all.  This  state  furnishes  two  thirds  of 
the  American  product. 

Mercury.  —  The  United  States  produces  about  a  fourth 
of  the  mercury  of  the  world.  From  California  about 
eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  output  of  the  United  States  is 
obtained.  Texas,  Utah,  Arizona,  and  Oregon  supply  the 
remainder.  This  metal  is  the  only  one  that,  under  ordinary 
conditions,  is  a  liquid.  The  hquid  in  thermometers  and 
barometers  is  mercury.  It  is  also  used  in  making  the 
backs  of  mirrors,  in  medicines  and  dentistry,  and  for  ex- 
tracting gold  and  silver  from  their  ores. 

Aluminum.  —  Within  the  last  thirty  years,  aluminum 
has  been  added  to  our  hst  of  valuable  metals.  It  had  re- 
mained practically  unknown  for  so  long  a  time  because  it 
is  difficult  to  separate  from  the  other  elements  with  which 
it  is  usually  combined.  By  means  of  electricity  this  mineral 
now  is  easily  released  from  its  ore,  called  bauxite.  It  is 
particularly  valuable  on  account  of  its  light  weight  and 
rust-proof  quality.  Kitchen  utensils,  suit  cases,  artificial 
limbs,  musical  instruments,  mailing  tubes,  chemical  uten- 
sils, and  camera  cases  are  a  few  of  the  articles  made  of  it. 
The  United  States  produces  about  a  fourth  of  the  world's 
supply,  and  most  of  it  comes  from  Arkansas,  Georgia, 
Alabama,  and  Tennessee. 


MINERAL   WEALTH   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES         263 

Gold.  —  Because  of  its  licauty  and  scarcity,  gold  is 
regarded  as  a  precious  metal.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  jewelry 
and  money.  Men  are  so  anxious  to  possess  gold  that  they 
will  undergo  the  most  trying  hardships  to  secure  it.  Some 
very  extensive  migrations  into  new  lands  have  l^een  due 
to  the  quest  for  gold  and  other  precious  metals. 

Gold-producing  Countries.  —  The  leading  countries  in 
gold  production  are  British  South  Africa,  the  United 
States,  Australia,  and  Mexico.  Our  own  country  mines  a 
httle  more  than  one  fifth  of  the  world's  annual  output. 
California,  Colorado,  Nevada,  Alaska,  South  Dakota,  Utah, 
Montana,  and  Arizona  are  the  chief  gold-producing  areas  of 
the  United  States. 

Discovery  of  Gold  in  California.  —  In  January  1848,  a 
man  named  Marshall  built  a  flour  mill  for  Mr.  Sutter,  a 
pioneer  settler  near  Sacramento,  California.  While  dig- 
ging a  mill-race,  he  found  in  the  sand  some  bright,  shining 
particles  which  proved  to  be  gold.  This  discovery  caused 
great  excitement.  The  gold  fever  spread  rapidly  over  the 
country.  Men  rushed  from  all  parts  of  the  world  —  from 
New  England,  Mexico,  China,  France,  Germany,  Italy, 
and  Russia  —  to  Cahfornia.  There  were  no  transcon- 
tinental railroads  in  those  days,  so  thousands  of  men 
from  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  crossed  the 
western  plains,  deserts,  and  mountains  in  canvas-covered 
wagons  to  the  California  gold  fields.  Others  went  by  ship 
to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  crossed  the  narrow  strip  of  land, 
and  then  took  ship  again  for  San  Francisco.  Still  others 
went  in  ships  around  Cape  Horn  to  reach  California. 

The  gold  region  was  public  land  belonging  to  the  Govern- 
ment. Each  prospector,  soon  after  his  arrival,  filled  a  pan 
with  gravel  from  the  river,  shook  and  whirled  it  under  the 


264 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


water  until  only  small  specks  of  gold  remained.  If  he  was 
satisfied  with  the  result  he  applied  for  a  claim  of  the  river 
front  on  the  spot  where  he  had  made  his  test.  The  lucky 
prospectors  made  very  large  wages.  Ordinary  miners  re- 
ceived $16  a  day.  The  very  lucky  ones  netted  as  much  as 
$1000  and  even  $5000  a  day.     Fabulous  prices  were  paid 

for  food  and  clothing. 
Hotel  accommoda- 
tions were  scant. 
People  lived  in  log 
cabins,  shanties,  and 
tents.  Board  and  all 
living  expenses  were 
incredibly  high  — 
flour  $1  a  pound, 
bacon  $1.60  a  pound, 
candles  $1  each,  a 
pair  of  boots  $100. 
Letters  could  not  be 
mailed  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  word, 
but  they  were  ex- 
pressed at  $2,  $3,  and 
$4  each. 

As  more  and  more 


Gold  washing,  California. 


gold  was  found,  pan-washing  became  too  slow,  and  the 
rocker  came  into  use.  The  rocker  had  a  flat  bottom,  two 
side  boards  and  a  head  board  with  a  hopper  at  the  upper 
end ;  the  head  of  this  contrivance  was  several  inches  higher 
than  the  foot.  Earth  and  water  were  thrown  into  the 
hopper ;  the  gold  and  fine  gravel  fell  through  the  screen  of 
the  hopper  to  the  bottom  of  the  rocker,  while  the  coarse 


MINERAL  WEALTH   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES         265 

rocks  rolled  off  from  above.  The  machine  was  kept  in 
constant  motion.  At  the  lower  end  was  a  riflSe  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  high  which  caught  the  gold  particles 
as  the  liner  gravel  and  clay  were  washed  down  by  the 
water.  Later  the  rocker  gave  way  to  the  "  long  torn," 
which  consisted  of  a  trough  or  sluiceway  of  boards  with 
sides  ten  inches  high.  The  water  thrown  into  the  sluice- 
way on  the  earth  carried  the  latter  down  the  gently  slant- 
ing bottom  board,  which  was  supplied  with  riffles  that 
caught  and  held  the  particles  of  gold,  while  the  gravel 
washed  away.  This  produced  results  more  quickly  than 
the  rocker. 

In  time,  canals  were  built  from  the  rivers  to  the  great 
gold-bearing  hills  some  distance  away.  By  means  of  pipes, 
large  streams  of  water  were  played  against  the  soil  and 
gravel,  forcing  it  into  ditches  or  sluices.  The  gold  settled 
at  the  bottom,  while  the  clay  and  sand  rolled  away.  This 
method  is  called  hydraulic  mining.  While  it  is  rather 
expensive  because  dams  and  flumes  must  be  built  and 
water  mains  must  be  laid,  one  man  can  accompHsh  as 
much  by  this  method  as  thirty-five  diggers. 

Dredging  for  Gold.  —  The  beds  and  deltas  of  many 
rivers  are  rich  in  gold.  This  is  obtained  by  means  of 
dredges.  A  gold  dredge  is  a  slow  boat  with  an  endless 
chain  of  buckets  that  scoop  up  the  earth  from  beneath 
the  water,  removing  thousands  of  cubic  yards  of  earth  in  a 
day.  As  each  bucket  reaches  the  top  of  the  dredge,  its 
contents  are  dropped  into  a  hopper.  The  mass  rolls  down 
a  revolving  screen,  and  water  is  constantly  played  upon 
the  screen,  so  that  the  soft  earth  and  particles  of  gold 
escape  through  the  screen  and  flow  over  the  riffle  boards 
below.     The  riffles  hold  back  the  gold.     The  stones  are 


266 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


carried  to  the  end  of  the  screen  and  are  thrown  off  in  some- 
what the  same  way  as  the  wheat  straw  is  carried  from  the 
threshing  machine  by  the  straw  stacker.  Thus  great  heaps 
of  rocks  and  soil  are  taken  from  the  earth  and  piled  in 
hills.  These  pyramids  of  dredged  earth  are  now  removed 
by  crushing  the  rocks  and  using  them  for  roads,  railroad 
ballast,  and  concrete.  The  remaining  soil  is  then  leveled 
and  the  tracts  are  converted  into  farm  lands. 


A  gold  dredge. 


Gold  from  Solid  Rocks.  —  After  considerable  mining 
had  been  done  along  the  rivers,  men  found  that  there  were 
veins  of  solid  rock  rich  in  gold,  deep  down  in  the  earth.  To 
get  this  is  more  difficult  and  costly  than  hydraulic  mining ; 
for  deep  shafts  must  be  sunk,  and  hoisting  engines,  mining 
tools,  and  blasting  materials  secured.  The  solid  rock  is 
crushed  in  stamp  mills  and  then  by  various  means  the 


MINERAL   WEALTH   Ol"    TIIK   UNITED   STATES         267 

gold  is  separated  from  the  line  particles  of  rock.  Such 
mining  can  be  done  only  by -companies  with  large  sums  of 
money. 

The  result  of  the  California  gold  fever  was  the  rapid 
settling  and  building  up  of  the  West.  Mine  after  mine  of 
gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead  was  discovered  in  California. 
Nevada,  Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado ;  in  fact,  all 
through  the  Pacific  and  Rocky  Mountain  section,  until 
to-day  this  is  one  of  the  richest  and  most  promising  parts 
of  the  United  States.  Roads  were  built  across  the  moun- 
tains, over  which  thousands  of  people  traveled  in  search  of 
new  opportunities.  The  Pacific  Railroad,  ready  for  use  in 
1867,  was  the  first  of  a  number  of  steam  highways  that 
promoted  a  stream  of  westward  migration  which  has  not 
yet  come  to  its  end.  Soon  resources  other  than  minerals 
attracted  strong,  daring  young  men  and  women  from  the 
East.  Agriculture,  fruit  growing,  stock  raising,  and  lum- 
bering brought  in  as  much  wealth  as  the  gold.  Scores  of 
prominent  cities  sprang  into  existence,  among  them  Sacra- 
mento, San  Francisco,  Oakland,  Los  Angeles,  Portland, 
Seattle,  Tacoma,  5alt  Lake  City,  Spokane,  and  Denver. 

Gold  in  Alaska.  —  In  1898  there  was  a  new  gold  excite- 
ment. Bright  yellow  particles  of  gold  had  been  discovered 
in  the  sands  of  the  Klondike  and  other  tributaries  of  the 
Yukon  River.  Then  the  cry  was,  "  On  to  Klondike,"  and 
there  was  a  mad  rush  to  the  Arctic  region  near  the  bound- 
ary of  Canada  and  Alaska.  The  gold  seekers  took  a  steamer 
at  Seattle  and  sailed  1200  miles  along  the  Canadian  shore 
to  Skagway  in  southern  Alaska.  There  the  adventurers 
began  a  long  wearisome  tramp  northward  over  the  Dead 
Horse  Trail,  so  named  because  many  prospectors  lost  their 
horses   here    through   exhaustion.     By   and   by   the   men 


268 


MINERAL   WEALTH   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES         269 

reached  the  upper  waters  of  the  Yukon,  glad  to  take  boats 
and  thus  be  relieved  of  carrying  heavy  burdens  over  rough 
paths.  But  even  a  sadder  fate  awaited  them  here ;  for 
some  of  the  boats  were  stranded  in  the  rapids  of  the  river. 
Many  lost  their  goods  and  not  a  few  were  drowned.  But 
the  more  sturdy  and  fortunate  ones  finally  reached  Dawson, 
Canada,  in  the  midst  of  the  gold  district  lying  in  Canada 
and  Alaska. 

At  first  the  miners  washed  the  gold-bearing  sands  lying  at 
the  surface.  Later,  when  much  of  the  loose  surface  earth 
had  been  sifted,  they  searched  underground  for  hidden 
treasures.  They  often  found  gold  deposits  several  feet 
below  the  surface.  In  order  to  get  the  gold  in  the  winter 
season  the  earth  had  to  be  thawed  out  with  fires  before  the 
mining  operations  could  be  carried  on.  A  few  men  were 
fortunate  enough  to  wash  out  hundreds  of  dollars'  worth 
of  gold  daily ;  but  for  the  majority  it  meant  most  trying 
hardships  and  privations  with  no  unusual  returns ;  and  in 
some  cases  disappointment  was  the  only  reward.  As  in  the 
case  of  Cahfornia,  the  railroad  soon  followed  the  path  of 
the  gold  hunters ;  so  now  the  entire  trip  from  our  western 
coast  can  be  comfortably  made  in  steamers  and  by  rail. 

Gold  at  Nome.  —  In  the  midst  of  the  Klondike  excite- 
ment, gold  was  discovered  on  the  beach  of  Cape  Nome, 
which  lies  on  the  west  coast  of  Alaska  near  the  entrance  to 
Bering  Strait.  At  once,  hundreds  of  Klondikers  packed 
their  goods  and  in  all  possible  haste  sailed  down  the  Yukon 
River  and  across  Norton  Sound  to  Nome,  a  small  Eskimo 
village.  This  was  even  a  richer  field  than  the  one  they  had 
left  behind.  Within  a  few  days  Nome  had  a  population 
of  2000  men.  Very  shortly  after  the  arrival  of  the  miners, 
hotels,  stores,  banks,  telegraphs,  telephones,  electric  lights. 


270 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


railroads,  and  schools  came  into  existence,  like  mush- 
rooms. While  the  sands  along  the  beach  yielded  rich 
returns,  Nome  was  a  thriving  city.  In  recent  years  it 
has  declined  in  importance. 


A  mining  camp,  Alaska. 

Much  as  gold  is  prized,  it  is  only  dead  matter,  which  in 
itself  cannot  contribute  one  iota  to  human  comfort.  The 
lucky  finders  had  to  have  purchasers  for  their  yellow  metal. 
So  they  took  it  to  the  United  States  assay  office  which  had 
been  put  up  in  Seattle  by  the  Government.  This  office 
has  bought  many  miUions  of  dollars'  worth  of  Alaskan 
gold  dust  and  has  sent  it  to  the  mints  to  be  coined.  Gold 
is  the  third  resource  which  has  made  Alaska  profitable  to 
the  United  States. 


MINERAL   WEALTH   OF    THE   UNITED   STATES         27 1 

Other   Resources   in   Alaska.  —  While  gold   lured  men 
north,  it  is  not  the  resource  that  holds  them  and  builds  up 


A  field  of  potatoes,  Alaska. 

the  region.  Furs  and  gold  attract  a  floating  population ; 
agriculture  builds  up  a  permanent  community.  Formerly 
Alaska  was  known  as  a  cold,  barren  place  from  which  men 
had  best  keep  away.  Since  the  discovery  of  gold,  it  has 
been  found  that  the  climate  is  as  good  as  that  of  Norway 
and  Sweden.  While  the  winters  are  severe  in  the  interior, 
the  summers  are  warm  and  well  adapted  in  certain  parts 
to  the  raising  of  grains,  vegetables,  and  grass.  Valuable 
forests  are  found  in  the  southern  half  of  the  peninsula. 
The  excellent  pastures  make  stock-raising  possible,  es- 
pecially of  the  reindeer,  cattle,  and  sheep.  Besides  the  gold, 
rich  copper  deposits  and  valuable  coal  beds  have  been  dis- 
covered. Manufactures  have  at  least  made  a  start,  and  a 
few  railroads  have  been  built. 


27: 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Our  Gold-producing  Districts.  —  The  greatest  gold  fields 
in  the  country  to-day  are  in  Colorado.  Cripple  Creek. 
Leadville,  and  Denver  are  especially  rich  in  silver  and  gold 
deposits.  California  is  the  second  in  the  production  of 
gold  at  present,  closely  rivaled  by  Alaska.  There  are  four 
mints  in  the  United  States  where  gold  is  melted,  stamped, 
and  milled  into  coin ;  namely  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans, 
Denver,  and  San  Francisco. 

Silver.  —  While  gold  is  the  best  mineral  for  setting  a 
standard  of  values,  silver  is  a  better  metal  for  the  making 
of  coins,  because  of  its  greater  hardness.  Moreover,  it  is 
found  in  much  larger  quantities  than  the  yellow  metal. 
The  world's  output  of  silver  is  ten  times  as  great  as  that 
of  gold  per  year.     In  the  last  fifty  years  silver  mining  has 


Silver-lead  mills,  Idaho. 


MINERAL   WEALTH   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES         273 

steadily  increased  in  our  country.  The  chief  silver-pro- 
ducing countries  are  Mexico,  United  States,  and  Canada. 
In  the  United  States,  Nevada,  Utah,  Montana,  Idaho, 
Colorado,  and  Arizona  lead  in  the  production  of  silver. 
Much  of  the  gold  ore  also  contains  silver  and  thus  these 
two  metals  may  be  the  product  of  one  kind  of  ore.  Large 
quantities  of  silver  are  present  in  copper  ores,  hence  in 
copper  mining,  silver  is  an  important  by-product. 

Questions 

1.  What  properties  make  iron  the  most  useful  mineral? 

2.  What  is  the  relation  between  iron  and  commerce  ?  Iron 
and  farming  ? 

3.  Write  out  a  list  of  articles  that  are  wholly  or  partly 
made  of  iron  or  steel. 

4.  Name  the  great  steel  centers  and  account  for  their  de- 
velopment. 

5.  Collect  specimens  of  pig  iron,  cast  iron,  wrought  iron, 
steel,  lead,  zinc,  copper,  brass. 

6.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  adjoining 
states  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York.  Show  routes  over  which 
iron  ore  passes ;  ports  at  which  it  is  unloaded  and  converted 
into  useful  articles. 

7.  Why  are  so  many  blast  furnaces  and  steel  mills  far  re- 
moved from  the  iron  mines  ? 

8.  What  is  the  most  valuable  resource- of  Alaska?  Of 
California  ? 

9.  Sketch  a  map  of  Alaska,  and  the  Yukon  River,  On  it 
indicate  the  Nome  and  Klondike  gold  districts. 

ID.    What  effect  would  a  total  lack  of  gold  and  silver  have 
upon  our  industries  ?     A  lack  of  copper  ? 


CHAPTER  XTX 

MINERAL   WEALTH    OF   THE    UNITED   STATES. 
NONMETALLIC   MINERALS 

Coal,  the  Basis  of  Successful  Industry.  —  No  country  at 
the  present  time  ranks  high  in  industry  that  does  not  have 
an  abundant  coal  supply.  The  three  leading  modern  in- 
dustrial nations  lead  in  the  production  of  coal  as  well 
as  of  iron.  They  produce  four  times  as  much  coal  as  all 
the  rest  of  the  nations  together.  Of  the  world's  output  in 
1910  the  United  States  produced  39  per  cent,  Great  Britain 
23  per  cent,  and  Germany  18  per  cent. 

Coal  Fields  of  the  United  States.  —  In  general  there  are 
two  kinds  of  coal  —  anthracite  or  hard  coal,  and  bitumi- 
nous or  soft  coal.     While,  so  far  as  is  known,  this  country 


Distribution  of  mineral  fuels  in  the  United  States. 
274 


MINERAL   WEALTH   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


75 


Digging  into  a  seam  of  coal  at  the  face  of  a  cliff,  Pennsylvania. 

has  the  largest  single  anthracite  coal  field  in  the  world,  it 
is  only  half  the  size  of  Delaware.  It  lies  in  eastern  Penn- 
sylvania. Besides  this  there  are  very  small  areas  of  it  in 
Colorado  and  New  Mexico.  The  bituminous  fields  are 
well  scattered  over  the  United  States.  No  less  than  thirty 
states  produce  coal.  The  two  leading  sections  are  the 
Appalachian  region  and  the  eastern  interior  field  lying  in 
Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Kentucky.  The  leading  coal  states, 
in  order  of  importance,  are  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia, 
Illinois,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Alabama,  Kentucky,  Colorado, 
Iowa,  and  Wyoming. 


276 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Work  in  the  Mines.  —  Work  in  the  mines  is  all  very 
hard,  whether  it  be  the  opening  of  the  shaft  or  tunnel  in  a 
new  mine,  the  blasting  of  a  wall  of  coal,  the  propping  of 
the  ceiling  with  heavy  beams,  the  loading  of  the  cars,  or 
the  breaking  up  of  the  hard  anthracite  lumps.  It  is 
doubly  difficult  when  the  miner  has  to  work  on  hands  and 
knees  in  a  thin  vein ;  or  work  while  lying  on  his  back. 
Sometimes  the  mine  is  damp  from  water  that  has  run  into 
it.  The  dangers  in  coal  mining  are  serious.  The  miners 
may  suffocate  from  mine  gases ;    or  they  may  be  crushed 

by  the  caving  in  of 
the  roof;  or  be 
drowned  by  an  un- 
expected break  of  a 
wall  that  lets  in  a 
flood  of  watery  or  an 
explosion  may  dash 
them  to  pieces ;  or  a 
fire  may  break  out 
and  burn  them  to 
DrUiing  into  a  layer  of  coal.  death.       Formerly 

Httle  attention  was  paid  to  mine  accidents ;  but  as  people 
have  become  more  thoughtful  of  one  another's  welfare, 
laws  have  been  passed  to  protect  miners,  and  the  number 
of  accidents  have  decreased. 

Inspection  and  Transportation  of  Coal.  —  When  coal  is 
ready  for  the  market,  before  it  leaves  the  mine  it  is  in- 
spected by  government  officers  whose  duty  it  is  to  see 
that  it  has  been  properly  cleaned  of  slate  and  other  foreign 
matter.  More  than  a  million  people  in  our  country  are 
employed  in  handling  coal.  Bituminous  coal,  as  it  leaves 
the  mine,  is  run  down  inclined  railroads  and  discharged 


MINERAL  WEALTH   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


277 


into  waiting  cars  or  barges.  Freight  boats,  filled  with 
this  fuel,  may  be  seen  ghding  over  the  waters  of  the  Ohio, 
the  Mississippi,  and  the  Great  Lakes.  Railway  companies 
that  carry  the  coal  overland,  have  as  many  as  70,000  cars 
devoted  entirely  to  coal  shipments. 

By-products  of  Coal.  —  Only  recently  has  man  learned 
to  secure  many  valuable  by-products  from  vast  quantities 
of  material  that  in  the  past  was  thrown  out  as  waste  at 
the  mouth  of  the  mines.  All  the  fine  dust  and  slack  which 
were  formerly  thrown  away  are  now  used  in  firing  boilers 
or  are  burned  in  specially  constructed  grates.     Coke  is  also 


Interior  of  a  gas  plant. 


manufactured  from  it.  Illuminating  gas  is  secured  by  dis- 
tillation from  coal,  after  which  it  is  passed  through  water 
and  slacked  lime.  When  steam  is  passed  over  red  hot 
coke  a  fuel  known  as  water  gas  is  the  result.     Coal  tar, 


278  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

which  is  a  by-product  of  coke  manufacture,  used  to  be 
considered  worse  than  waste,  because  the  men  did  not 
know  how  to  get  rid  of  it  except  to  throw  it  into  streams ; 
and  there  it  was  a  nuisance.  Nowadays  scores  of  valuable 
articles  are  made  from  it ;  such  as  ammonia,  benzine, 
saccharin,  dyes,  red  ink,  disinfectant  oils,  carbolic  acid, 
explosives,  insecticides,  photographic  developers,  creosote 
for  preserving  meat  and  wood,  lubricating  oils,  pitch  for 
tar  paper  and  tar  felt,  and  lamp  black.  It  is  coal,  too, 
that  produces  part  of  the  mineral  oil  that  replaces  whale 
oil  and  thus  supplements  our  fishery  products. 

Waste  in  the  Mining  of  Coal.  —  Probably  the  fact  that 
our  coal  supply  seemed  inexhaustible  has  led  us  to  be  very 
wasteful.  It  has  been  estimated  that  up  to  1883,  for  every 
ton  of  coal  that  was  marketed  a  ton  and  a  half  were  lost 
at  the  mine ;  since  that  date  one  ton  has  been  wasted  for 
every  ton  used.  Sometimes  thin  layers  of  coal  are  inter- 
spersed with  layers  of  shale.  Such  beds  have  been  left 
because  it  was  too  much  trouble  to  handle  the  shale.  As  a 
rule  in  the  past  any  stratum  of  coal  less  than  three  feet 
thick  has  not  been  mined.  Of  course  that  means  an  enor- 
mous waste.  Sometimes  when  several  veins  occur  in  the 
same  place,  the  lower  ones  are  worked  first ;  then  those 
above  cave  in  and  are  so  crushed  that  it  is  impossible  to 
extract  the  coal  of  the  higher  seams  from  the  debris.  Ex- 
plosives used  to  loosen  the  coal  crumble  a  large  quantity  of 
it  and  cause  great  loss  thereby. 

Waste  of  Coal  in  Factories  and  Power  Houses.  —  If  the 
coal  in  the  furnaces  of  our  factories,  stores,  and  large  public 
buildings  were  properly  burned  there  would  be  little  or  no 
smoke.  The  smoke  is  unbumed  coal.  In  the  form,  of  soot 
and  smoke  we  are  driving  about  20  per  cent  of  the  fuel 


MINERAL   WEALTH   OF  THE  UNTLED   STATES 


279 


that  is  thrown  into  the  furnace  out  through  the  chimney 
without  the  least  return  to  us.  On  the  contrary  there  is 
great  injury  to  our  health.  Many  American  families,  per- 
haps all  those  using  coal,  are  wasting  some  by  overfeeding 
the  stoves  and  furnaces,  heating  more  rooms  daily  than  are 
in  use. 

Waste  of  Coal  in  the  Manufacture  of  Coke.  —  In  the 
United  States  a  large  amount  of  coal  is  wasted  in  the 


Coke  ovens,  West  Virginia. 

thousands  of  poorly  constructed  ovens  in  which  coke  is 
manufactured.  Other  countries,  such  as  Germany,  manu- 
facture their  coke  in  ovens  that  not  only  increase  the 
quantity  and  improve  the  quality  of  the  coke,  but  yield 
ammonia,  tar,  and  gas  as  by-products.  If  all  our  ovens 
were  of  this  modern  type,  millions  of  dollars  would  be  saved 
annually. 


28o  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

Government  Coal  Lands.  —  Early  in  the  history  of  our 
country,  the  government  sold  public  lands  for  little  or 
nothing,  irrespective  of  whether  it  was  farming  or  coal- 
bearing  land.  The  loose  laws  made  it  possible  for  groups 
of  individuals,  forming  a  corporation,  to  acquire  immense 
areas  of  coal  fields  at  a  trifling  cost.  This  put  a  great 
resource  into  the  hands  of  private  owners  at  ridiculously 
low  prices.  To-day  the  government  is  classifying  the 
pubhc  lands  as  agricultural  and  coal  bearing.  This  work 
is  being  done  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey.  As 
the  task  requires  several  years,  large  tracts  of  pubhc  land 
are  withdrawn  from  settlement  or  sale,  until  the  Geological 
Survey  can  classify  them  and  give  some  definite  informa- 
tion as  to  their  true  value.  When  that  is  done,  the  coal 
lands  are  sold  at  prices  more  nearly  proportional  to  the 
worth  of  the  coal. 

Government  Ownership  of  Coal  Lands.  —  It  has  long 
been  suggested  that  coal  lands  should  be  held  by  the 
United  States  government,  and  leased  to  private  concerns 
at  a  specified  royalty.  By  this  method  the  government 
revenue  would  be  increased,  and  the  coal  supply  would 
probably  last  longer.  In  191 2  the  government  tried  for 
the  first  time  the  plan  of  leasing  a  coal  mine  instead  of 
selling  it.  A  mine  of  2480  acres  in  Wyoming  was  leased 
for  ten  years  to  a  private  company  at  the  rate  of  six  and  a 
half  cents  a  ton  on  all  coal  mined  during  the  first  five  years, 
and  eight  cents  a  ton  for  the  remaining  time  of  the  lease. 
In  order  to  promote  the  safety  of  the  miner  and  prevent 
the  waste  of  coal  this  mine  must  be  operated  according  to 
rules  prescribed  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines  at  Washington. 
This  is  an  experiment  whose  purpose  it  is  to  make  coal 
mining  in  America  as  safe  as  it  is  in  Europe. 


MINERAL   WEALTH   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


281 


"■*<WiMiiii,ii.t.giia^ 


Oil  wells. 

Petroleum.  —  Petroleum,  or  coal  oil,  has  been  used 
only  a  few  decades.  But  to-day  the  world  produces  several 
hundred  million  barrels  of  it  annually.  Three  fifths  of  it  is 
obtained  from  the  United  States.  Russia  is  our  rival, 
producing  half  as  much  as  we  do.  Petroleum  occurs  in 
porous  rock  or  in  pockets  in  the  earth,  from  which  it  is 
pumped  out.  Kerosene,  used  for  light,  was  the  first 
product  derived  from  petroleum ;  but  recently  many 
other  profitable  products  have  been  extracted  from 
this  mineral.  Gasoline,  naphtha,  benzine,  paraffin,  and 
vaseline  are  made  from  it.  A  large  amount  of  crude 
petroleum  is  used  as  fuel  in  locomotives  in  some  parts 
of  the  country. 

Petroleum  Districts  in  the  United  States.  —  The  United 
States  has  six  large  petroleum  districts:  (i)  Appalachian; 
(2)  Ohio-Indiana ;    (3)  Illinois ;    (4)  Mid-Continent,  which 


282 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


includes  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  northern  Texas ;  (5)  Gulf, 
which  consists  of  Texas  and  Louisiana ;  and  (6)  California. 
By  far  the  greatest  quantity  of  petroleum  comes  from  this 
last  state.  For  many  years  after  its  use  had  become 
known,  petroleum  had  only  a  local  market.  This  was  due 
to  the  difficulty  of  shipping  a  combustible  hquid.  Now  pipe 
lines,  hundreds  of  miles  long,  carry  the  oil  from  the  field 

to  distant  ports  and 
markets.  In  addi- 
tion, the  recent  im- 
pr  o  vem  en  ts  in 
methods  of  trans- 
portation have  given 
oil  a  world-wide 
market.  American 
petroleum  is  sold 
in  many  foreign 
countries. 

The  supply  of  oil 
in  the  areas  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River  is  declining.  It  is  only  a  question- 
of  time  when  all  petroleum  territory  will  cease  to  yield. 
To  prolong  the  period  of  supply,  we  must  learn  to  be 
economical  in  its  use  for  fuel,  light,  and  lubricants.  If 
the  United  States  wishes  to  insure  large  oil  .supplies  to 
future  generations,  she  must  restrict  the  present  exporta- 
tion to  foreign  countries.  Finally  perhaps  public  oil  lands 
should  be  leased  rather  than  sold  to  private  corporations. 
Natural  Gas.  —  This  fuel  is  frequently  found  with  petro- 
leum. It  has  been  in  use  even  a  shorter  time  than  the  oil, 
because  at  first  people  considered  it  a  misfortune  to  find 
it  present  in  the  oil  wells.     In  1874  a  Pittsburgh  iron  mill 


Oil  tanks. 


MINERAL  WEALTH  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES         283 

made  the  first  industrial  use  of  gas  in  this  country.  Due 
to  the  enormous  waste  and  extensive  use  in  manufacture 
and  domestic  heating,  many  of  the  gas  fields  are  almost 
exhausted.  At  present  the  leading  gas  states  are  Penn- 
sylvania, West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and 
Indiana. 

Clay,  Sand,  and  Stone.  —  Clay,  from  which  brick,  tile, 
and  pottery  are  made ;  and  sand,  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  glass,  mortar,  and  concrete,  are  two  of  our  most  valuable 
nonmetallic  minerals.  The  United  States  has  almost 
every  variety  of  these  products  in  inexhaustible  quantities. 
These  minerals  owe  their  importance  to  the  great  demand 
for  them  by  the  building  trades.  We  are  fortunate  in 
having  every  state  well  suppHed.  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and 
New  Jersey  are  noted  for  the  fine  quality  of  their  clays. 

In  rock,  such  as  granite,  marble,  sandstone,  and  lime- 
stone, this  country  is  very  rich.     All  are  used  for  building 


A  clay  mine. 


284 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


A  marble  quarry. 

purposes.  Marble  is  especially  adapted  to  ornamental  and 
monumental  work ;  the  hard  granite  makes  excellent  pav- 
ing blocks  and  curbstones ;  sandstone  is  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  fine  buildings ;  and  limestone  is  used  to  make 
roadways,  railroad  ballast,  and  lime.  Manufactured  cement 
consists  of  three  parts  of  lime  and  one  part  of  clay.  The 
best  limestone  is  found  in  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
and  New  York ;  excellent  granite  comes  from  Massachu- 
setts, Vermont,  Maine,  Connecticut,  Pennsylvania,  and 
California ;   Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  Ohio  lead  in 


MINERAL   WEALTH   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES         285 

sandstone ;  Vermont,  Georgia,  and  Tennessee  excel  in 
marble. 

Mineral  Fertilizers.  —  There  are  rich  deposits  of  phos- 
phates in  South  Carohna,  Florida,  Tennessee,  Arkansas, 
and  Kentucky.  While  workable  deposits  of  potash  and 
nitrate  salts  have  not  yet  been  found,  scientists  are  search- 
ing for  them  in  the  deserts.  If  such  minerals  are  found 
the  United  States  will  no  longer  be  compelled  to  import 
potash  salts  from  Germany  and  nitrate  from  Chile. 

Conclusion.  —  Iron  and  coal  are  the  most  useful  minerals. 
Iron  or  steel  is  used  in  the  construction  of  buildings, 
bridges,  railroads,  ships,  engines,  cars,  and  thousands  of 
other  things  that  require  a  material  of  great  strength  and 
hardness.  Coal  is  the  mineral  that  enables  us  to  defy  the 
cold  of  winter,  and  furnishes  the  power  that  turns  the 
wheels  of  factories,  draws  railroad  trains  across  continents, 
and  propels  ships  around  the  world.  The  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  and  Germany,  leading  in  the  production 
of  these  two  minerals,  are  the  foremost  nations  in  manu- 
facturing and  commerce. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Why  is  manufacturing  a  prominent  occupation  in  coal 
regions?     Why  is  not  the  coal  carried  to  the  iron  deposits? 

2.  Why  do  nations  with  large  coal  deposits  rule  the  world? 

3.  If  convenient,  visit  a  mine,  a  coke  oven,  an  oil  well,  a 
pottery,  a  quarry,  or  a  tile  factory. 

4.  What  difference  would  it  have  made  in  the  industrial  de- 
velopment of  our  country  if  the  Appalachian  Mountains  con- 
tained only  gold  and  silver,  and  the  Rockies  were  rich  in  iron 
and  coal  ? 


CHAPTER   XX 
INDUSTRIAL  MIRACLES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  FACTORY 

Growth   of  Manufacturing  in  the   United   States.  —  In 

the  early  history  of  our  country  there  was  very  Httle  manu- 
facturing. Most  of  the  manufactured  articles,  such  as 
clothing  and  tools,  required  in  the  daily  life  of  the  common 
people,  were  made  in  their  homes.  The  rich  imported  fine 
clothing  and  articles  of  luxury  from  Europe.  Until  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  our  manufactures  were 
unimportant.  But  by  the  close  of  that  century  the  manu- 
facturing spirit  had  taken  hold  of  Americans.  The  disas- 
trous results  of  the  Civil  War  had  been  largely  overcome 
by  1880.  The  population  was  increasing  very  fast,  and 
the  West  was  being  opened  up.  These  conditions  increased 
the  demand  and  stimulated  the  factories  to  extend  their 
output.  To-day  the  United  States  is  the  leading  manu- 
facturing nation  of  the  world. 

Variety  of  Manufactures.  —  Our  manufacturing  indus- 
tries may  be  roughly  divided  into  fourteen  groups  or 
classes  of  articles  :  food  products  ;  textiles  ;  iron  and  steel ; 
lumber  and  its  manufactures ;  leather  and  its  products ; 
paper  and  printing ;  liquors  and  other  beverages  ;  chemi- 
cals ;  clay,  glass,  and  stone  products ;  metals,  other  than 
iron  and  steel ;  tobacco ;  vehicles  for  transportation ; 
shipbuilding ;  and  miscellaneous  industries. 

These  occupations  are  scattered  over  the  United  States, 
but  the  great  manufacturing  district  is  in  the  northeast. 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  and  Massachusetts  are 

286 


INDUSTRIAL    MIRACLES  OF  THE  AMERICAN   FACTORY     287 


288  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

the  four  leading  manufacturing  states.  The  states  east 
of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of  the  Ohio  River  and  the 
Mason  and  Dixon  line  employ  three  fourths  of  the  factory 
hands  of  the  country  and  produce  three  fourths  of  the 
value  of  the  products. 

Food  Products.  —  The  value  of  food  products  is  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  class  of  manufactures.  Agriculture 
is  the  chief  source  of  raw  materials  for  the  manufacture  of 
food.  Farm  animals  furnish  nearly  all  of  the  meat 
products.  Dairy  cattle  yield  dairy  products.  Our  grain 
crops  supply  flour  and  other  cereal  foods.  Vegetables 
and  fruits  are  the  raw  materials  of  the  canning  and  preserv- 
ing industry.  Meat  packing  is  the  most  important  of  the 
food-manufacturing  industries.  This  industry  is  centered 
mainly  in  Chicago,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  Indianapolis, 
St.  Louis,  St.  Joseph,  and  Cincinnati.  In  the  East,  Buffalo 
and  New  York  are  important  centers  of  meat  packing. 
Fifty  years  ago  nearly  all  the  butter  and  cheese  was  made  on 
the  farm ;  to-day  creameries,  cheese  factories,  and  con- 
denseries  have  transferred  the  greater  part  of  the  manu- 
facture of  dairy  products  from  the  country  to  the  city. 
The  greatest  dairy  interests  are  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  and 
North  Central  States,  which  produce  two  thirds  of  this 
class  of  foods.  Wisconsin  and  New  York  are  the  two 
leading  dairying  states.  The  North  Central  States  which 
lie  in  the  grain  belt  have  the  largest  flour-milhng  industry : 
MinneapoUs,  near  the  great  wheat  region  and  with  fine 
water  power  at  hand,  has  become  the  world's  great  milling 
center.  New  York,  Buffalo,  Milwaukee,  and  Kansas 
City  also  rank  high  in  flour  milling. 

The  manufacture  of  sugar  from  sugar  cane  and  sugar 
beets  is  an  important  industry.     Raw  sugar  is  manufactured 


INDUSTRL\L  MIRACLES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  FACTORY     289 

in  the  cane-growing  sections  and  then  is  shipped  to  refineries 
in  large  seaports  and  made  into  refined  sugar.  Much  raw 
sugar  from  Cuba  and  Hawaii  is  shipped  to  these  refineries. 
The  beet  sugar  ready  for  use  is  made  in  factories  located 
in  the  beet-growing  districts.  Canned  vegetables  and 
fruits,  canned  oysters  and  fish,  smoked  and  dried  fish, 
pickles,  dried  fruits,  preserves  and  jelHes  are  some  of  the 
leading  foods  that  are  supphed  by  the  canning  and  preserv- 
ing industry.  California  leads  in  fruit  canning  ;  Maryland 
in  tomatoes ;  Wisconsin  and  New  York  in  peas ;  Illinois 
and  Maine  in  corn  ;  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Maryland 
in  sealed  oysters ;    and  Washington  in  canned  salmon. 

Textiles. — ^  Clothing  ranks  second  in  importance  and  third 
in  value  among  the  necessities  of  Hfe.  More  people  earn  a 
living  by  manufacturing  cotton  cloth,  hosiery  and  knit  goods, 
carpets  and  rugs,  oil  cloth  and  hnoleum,  silk  and  silk  goods, 
woolen  and  worsted  goods  than  by  any  other  class  of  articles. 


Textile  school,  Lowell,  Massachusetts. 


290  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

The  moist  climate  and  the  abundant  water  power 
furnished  by  the  rapid  rivers  have  helped  to  give  New 
England  the  first  rank  in  cotton  manufacture,  with  Massa- 
chusetts leading  all  the  states.  Recently  the  Southern 
States  have  built  cotton  mills,  which  are  doing  a  flourishing 


A  large  cotton  mill. 

business.  With  coal  and  iron  in  the  heart  of  the  South, 
with  a  large  amount  of  water  power,  and  cotton  growing 
in  almost  every  part,  in  time  there  will  probably  be  as 
great  textile  manufacturing  centers  in  the  South  as  the 
New  England  cities  of  Boston,  Manchester,  and  Fall  River. 
The  Carolinas,  Georgia,  and  Alabama  may  even  surpass 
Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 

The  woolen  manufactures  of  the  United  States  include 
worsted  and  woolen  goods,  hosiery,  knit  goods,  and  carpets. 
Foreign  lands  with  extensive  grazing  areas,  such  as  Argen- 
tina, South  Africa,  and  Australia,  supply  much  wool  for 
our  mills,  which  are  yearly  increasing  their  output  of 
merinos,  broadcloth,  cashmeres,  serges,  and  woolen  yarns. 


INDUSTRIAL  MIRACLES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  FACTORY     29 1 


These  are  made  into  men's  and  ^"^^ 

women's  woolen  suitings,  under- 
wear flannels,  knit  shawls,  blank- 
ets, and  carriage  robes.  Much 
wool  is  used  in  making  mixed 
cloths  of  cotton  and  wool,  or  silk 
and  wool.  The  woolen  factories, 
like  those  of  cotton,  are  thickly 
clustered  in  the  Northeastern 
States,  including  all  of  New  Eng- 
land and  the  two  adjoining  states 
of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 

The   leading   clothing   manufacturing  centers  are  New 
York,    Philadelphia,    Chicago,    Cincinnati,    Boston,    and 


'^^^^ 


Primitive  spinning. 


Carpet  looms. 


292 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Baltimore.  The  United  States  takes  high  rank  in  the 
manufacture  of  carpets  and  rugs.  Cohoes,  New  York, 
is  a  great  center  for  the  manufacture  of  underwear.  Troy 
is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  collars  and  cuffs,  and 
Philadelphia  is  the  largest  manufacturer  of  hosiery. 

Silk  Manufactures. — As  early  as  1624  attempts  were 
made  to  introduce  the  industry  of  raising  silkworms  into 
Virginia.  Since  then,  many  efforts  have  been  made  in 
various  parts  of  the  country,  sometimes  with  the  aid  of 
government  bounties,  to  start  silk  raising  in  this  country, 
but  with  shght  success.  Failure  has  been  due  largely  to 
the  tedious  hand  labor  required,  and  the  high  wages 
demanded  in  America.  We  cannot  compete  with  Europe 
and  Asia  where  labor  is  cheaper  than  in  our  own  country. 
Although  the  raising  of  silk  has  resulted  in  failure  in  this 
country,  the  manufacture  of  silk  goods  has  been  so  success- 
ful that  the  United  States 
to-day  is  the  second  silk- 
manufacturing  country 
in  the  world,  surpassed 
by  China  only.  We 
manufacture  more  than 
France,  Italy,  and  Swit- 
zerland combined.  The 
greatest  number  of 
American  silk  factories 
are  in  Pennsylvania, 
New  Jersey,  New  York, 
and  Connecticut,  but 
Silkworms  feeding.  ^Yieve  are  factories   in 

many  other  states,  especially  in  the  South  and  West.     The 
story  of  silk  manufacture  is  a  long  one.     Even  after  a  piece 


INDUSTRIAL  MIRACLES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  FACTORY     293 

of  goods  has  been  woven,  it  must  be  treated  and  handled 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  times  before  it  is  ready  for  the 
consumer. 


A  silk  mill. 


Iron  and  Steel  Products.  —  The  United  States  leads 
the  world  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel.  About 
90  per  cent  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry  is  carried  on  in 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Alabama.  Pittsburgh, 
Cleveland,  Chicago,  and  Birmingham  are  the  chief  centers 
in  these  states.  New  York  City,  St.  Louis,  Gary,  and 
Buffalo  also  are  noted  for  their  iron  industries.  The  greatest 
iron  and  steel  city  is  Pittsburgh. 

A  large  number  of  industries  use  iron  and  steel  in  the 
manufacture  of  important  products.  Some  of  these  prod- 
ucts are  metal-working  machinery,  structural  iron  and 
steel  used  in  bridges  and  buildings,  locomotives,  rails, 
plows,  seeders,  harvesting  machines,  windmills,  printing 


294 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Running  molten  iron  from  the  blast  furnaces  into  ladles  which  transport 
it  to  the  steel  mills  where  it  is  made  into  steel. 


INDUSTRIAL  MIRACLES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  FACTORY     295 


presses,  sewing  machines,  typewriters,  safes,  tools,  hard- 
ware, wire,  and  cutlery.  These  are  only  a  few  of  the  uses 
of  iron  in  modern  life.. 

The  United  States  has  some  of  the  largest  shipbuilding 
plants  in  the  world  and  in  these  much  steel  is  used.  Some 
of  them  are  at  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Bath,  and  San 
Francisco ;  there  are  many  locomotive  factories  in  Phila- 
delphia, Scranton,  Pittsburgh,  Providence,  and  Paterson. 
American  engines 
are  sent  to  England, 
France,  Scandinavia, 
Siberia,  and  other 
countries.  Farming 
implements  are  ex- 
ported to  Argentina, 
Austraha,  Canada, 
and  Europe. 

Products  of  Metal 
other  than  Iron  and 
Steel.  —  Many  in- 
dustries  utilize 
metals  other  than 
iron  and  steel.  They 
have   mostly  to   do 


7  ^^^iK 


Pouring  molten  steel  into  ingot  molds. 


with  the  smelting  and  refining  of  lead,  zinc,  and  copper ; 
the  refining  of  gold  and  silver ;  the  making  of  brass,  the 
rolHng  of  copper ;  and  many  secondary  occupations,  such 
as  manufacturing  silver  and  brass  ware,  and  watches  and 
jewelry.  Copper  products  are  the  most  valuable,  because 
this  metal  plays  a  prominent  part  in  the  modern  uses  of 
electricity. 

Wood  and  its  Manufactures.  —  A  large  number  of  in- 


296 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Underwood  ct  L'ndvnruud. 

Furniture  factory,  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan. 


dustries  of  the  United  States  depend  upon  the  timber  camp 
and  lumber  mill.  The  rough  lumber,  after  it  leaves  the 
forest,  is  worked  over  into  furniture,  houses,  boxes,  wagons, 
agricultural  implements,  and  ships.  Leading  furniture 
cities  are  New  York,  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  and  Grand 
Rapids.  A  large  quantity  of  wood  is  converted  into  wood 
pulp,  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  Perhaps 
the  people  of  no  other  country  read  as  many  papers,  maga- 
zines, and  books  as  those  of  the  United  States,  therefore 
printing  and  publishing  make  a  very  heavy  drain  upon  wood 
pulp  and  paper.  Most  of  the  products  of  paper  making 
and  printing  come  from  New  York,  Illinois,  Pennsylvania, 
Massachusetts,  Ohio,  and  Missouri. 


INDUSTRIAL  MIRACLES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  FACTORY     297 

Chemicals  and  Similar  Products.  —  Chemicals  are  im- 
portant products  of  American  manufacture.  Some  of 
the  leading  chemicals  and  allied  products  are  petroleum, 
gasohne,  coke,  artificial  gas,  paints,  turpentine  and  rosin, 
gunpowder  and  other  explosives,  acids,  dyestuffs,  starch, 
soap,  wood  alcohol,  and  drugs  and  medicines.  Most  of 
the  products  of  this  industry  are  manufactured  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  York,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  and  lUinois. 

Leather  and  its  Products.  —  Several  branches  of  industry 
receive  their  raw  materials  from  tanneries  in  which  hides 
and  skins  are  tanned  and  made  into  leather.  The  United 
States  turns  most  of  its  leather  into  shoes,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  which  she  ranks  higher  than  any  other  country. 
The  New  England  States  make  more  than  half  of  our  boots 
and  shoes.  Massachusetts  outstrips  all  others  in  this 
business ;   but  the  Western  States  are  coming  into  promi- 


(  iiUluluou  a  L  ndirauod. 


A  shoe  factory. 


298  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

nence.  Lynn  and  Brockton  in  Massachusetts  are  the  great- 
est shoe-manufacturing  centers,  while  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, Chicago,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis  have  many 
shoe  factories. 

Clay,  Glass,  and  Stone  Products.  —  Our  enormous  in- 
crease in  population  and  industries  requires  the  erection 
of  a  very  large  number  of  buildings.  The  demand  for 
fireproof  structures  and  the  scarcity  of  lumber,  due  to 
the  disappearance  of  the  forests,  are  leading  to  the  exten- 
sive use  of  clay ,  glass,  and  stone  products.  Most  of  our 
new  buildings  are  made  of  brick,  concrete,  or  stone.  Con- 
crete, which  is  so  largely  used  to-day  in  construction,  is 
an  artificial  rock  made  of  gravel  or  crushed  stone,  sand, 
and  cement. 

Bricks,  drainage  tiles,  sewer  pipes,  terra  cotta,  and 
pottery  are  the  chief  products  made  of  clay.  Ohio,  Penn- 
sylvania, New  Jersey,  and  New  York  lead  in  the  manu- 
facture of  our  clay  products.  Most  of  the  fine  pottery 
used  in  this  country  is  imported.  In  the  manufacture  of 
glass,  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  and  Ohio  are  the  leading 
states.  It  is  hard  to  reaHze  how  much  glass  and  clay  prod- 
ucts contribute  to  our  daily  welfare.  It  will  prove  in- 
teresting to  make  a  list  of  all  the  articles  you  can  name  that 
are  made  of  glass  or  clay. 

Ships  and  Vehicles.  —  The  transportation  over  land  and 
across  seas  of  the  many  articles  required  in  modern  Hfe 
gives  rise  to  more  than  a  dozen  manufacturing  industries. 
They  include  the  making  of  carriages  and  wagons ;  sleighs 
and  sleds ;  baggage,  express,  and  refrigerator  cars ;  pas- 
senger cars,  sleepers,  and  diners ;  electric  street  railway 
cars ;  bicycles,  tricycles,  and  automobiles ;  and  finally 
river  craft,  and  ships  of  many  kinds. 


INDUSTRIAL  MIRACLES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  FACTORY     299 


The  development  of  the  gas  engine  in  the  last  two  decades 
has  brought  us  many  new  transportation  conveniences. 
From  petroleum,  gasoline  is  distilled.  This  liquid  has  to 
a  great  extent  taken  the  place  of  steam  power  and  com- 
pletely changed  our  transportation  vehicles  in  the  twentieth 
century.  The  gasoline  engine  has  given  us  automobiles, 
motor  cycles,  motor  boats,  and  aeroplanes. 

The  first  automobile  show  in  America  was  held  in  1900 
in  New  York.  In  1901  the  first  transcontinental  automo- 
bile trip  was  made.  In  the  same  year  the  motor  cycle  was 
brought  out.  The 
motor  boat  too 
appeared ;  biit  was 
looked  upon  as  a 
doubtful  and  dan- 
gerous addition  to 
our  water  craft.  At 
that  time  the  gen- 
eral pubhc  did  not 
believe  possible  a 
machine  that  could 
fly  successfully  through  the  air.  Our  waters  are  rippled 
by  numerous  motor  boats,  and  men  have  crossed  the 
English  Channel,  the  Alps  Mountains,  and  the  North 
American  continent  in  aeroplanes  propelled  by  gasoline 
engines. 

For  several  years  after  the  automobile  appeared,  it  was 
looked  upon  merely  as  a  pleasure  device  for  the  rich ; 
but  now  it  is  used  more  and  more  for  commercial  purposes. 
The  large  trucks  of  express  companies  and  department 
stores  carry  six-horse  loads  with  greater  speed  than  would 
be  possible  for  animals.     Many  truck  farmers  use  motor 


A  motor  truck. 


300  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

trucks  to  carry  their  produce  to  the  cities.  Auto-ambu- 
lances are  used  to  render  quick  service  to  the  sick  and  in- 
jured. Heavy  gasoHne-driven  trucks,  40-60  horse  power, 
are  used  by  fire  departments. 

The  motor  cycle  can  carry  from  300  to  500  pounds  of 
freight,  and  so  is  helpful  in  dehvering  parcels.  .  Being 
smaller,  it  can  go  where  automobiles  cannot.  It  has  stood 
the  test  of  riding  uninjured  over  many  miles  of  railroad  ties ; 
and  of  finding  its  way  through  bad  roads.  It  is  said  to  be 
the  fastest  vehicle  on  wheels  in  existence.  There  is  a 
large  demand  for  it  in  business  circles.  The  motor  cycle 
is  useful  to  policemen,  letter  carriers,  messengers,  collectors, 
inspectors,  country  doctors,  and  traveHng  salesmen.  It 
is  of  great  value  to  the  small  poultry  raiser  and  the  truck 
farmer.  For  marketing  their  goods,  it  is  cheaper  than  the 
horse.  No  wonder  that  motor  cycle  factories  are  enlarging 
their  plants  to  meet  the  ever  increasing  calls  for  this  vehicle. 

Alcohol  Motors.  —  The  sources  of  gasohne  are  coal  and 
petroleum.  As  long  as  the  earth  suppHes  these,  gasoline 
will  be  an  important  fuel  and  source  of  motor  power.  But 
already  men  are  thinking  about  what  must  be  done  when 
the  black  diamond  and  the  mineral  oil  are  exhausted.  One 
solution  of  that  problejn  lies  in  the  manufacture  of  alcohol 
from  potatoes  and  other  plants  that  contain  a  large  amount 
of  starch  or  sugar.  The  alcohol  thus  obtained  can  be  used 
in  place  of  gasoline  in  engines.  In  the  future  alcohol  for 
motors  may  be  profitably  manufactured  by  the  fermenta- 
tion of  the  sugar  in  the  waste  products  of  the  cane-sugar 
and  beet-sugar  factories  and  from  potato  culls  and  other 
starchy  plants.  The  starch  in  such  plants  must  first  be 
converted  into  sugar  which  is  then  fermented  for  the  pro- 
duction of  alcohol. 


INDUSTRIAL  MIRACLES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  FACTORY     30 1 


Manufacturing  by  Electricity.  —  The  greatest  of  all 
miracles  of  twentieth-centun-  manufacturing  is  the  de- 
velopment of  electrical  industries.  Thousands  of  American 
factories  have  changed  from  steam  to  the  magical  electric 
current  generated  by  the  falls  and  rapids  of  rivers.  This 
mysterious  harnessing  of  ri\ers  to  the  service  of  man  is 
producing  wonderful 
results.  Much  of 
the  energy  of  Ni- 
agara Falls  has  been 
converted  into  elec- 
tricity, which,  car- 
ried by  wires,  serves 
as  power  in  Buffalo 
and  in  cities  a  long 
distance  away. 
Electric  power  used 
in  Syracuse  comes 
from  Niagara  Falls, 
165  miles  away. 
Buffalo,  industrially 
great  as  it  was  be- 
fore, is  many  times 
greater  since  the 
Falls  have  been  har- 
nessed. By  means 
of  electricity  gener- 
ated by  them,  southern  rivers  make  possible  many  busy 
mills  in  the  land  of  Dixie,  where  the  cotton  grows.  A 
large  amount  of  power  used  in  Los  Angeles  is  generated 
at  the  Kern  River,  125  miles  away.  Many  other  Cali- 
fornia cities  and  many  cities  in  Oregon,  Washington,  Colo- 


Dynamos  at  Niagara  Falls. 


302  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

rado,  and  other  Western  States  receive  electric  power 
that  has  been  generated  from  mountain  streams.  The 
largest  water-power  plant  in  the  United  States  is  located 
at  Keokuk,  Iowa.  In  order  to  utilize  the  water  for  the 
production  of  electricity  a  large  dam  has  been  built  across 
the  Mississippi.  From  this  place  electric  energy  is  dis- 
tributed to  St.  Louis  and  other  neighboring  cities. 

Millions  of  houses  and  other  buildings  are  lighted  by 
electricity.  The  fact  that  most  lights  are  turned  out  from 
dawn  to  twilight  causes  a  certain  amount  of  idleness  in  the 
power  houses  during  the  day.     To  induce  people  to  use 


Keokuk  Dam  across  the  Mississippi  River. 

more  electric  energy  in  daytime,  lower  rates  were  offered 
from  sunrise  to  sunset.  Men  at  once  began  to  devise  new 
applications  of  electricity.  The  ice  in  refrigerators  was 
replaced  by  cooling  machines  operated  by  the  electric 
current.  Households  were  equipped  with  electrical  cooking 
apparatus.  Even  washing  and  ironing  are  done  by  elec- 
tricity, and  this  same  force  is  used  to  run  the  vacuum 
cleaner. 

Conclusion.  — •  American  citizens  are  masters  of  hundreds 
of  comphcated  branches  of  manufacturing.  Compare 
that  with  the  power  of  the  Indians  to  make  skin  tents, 
beads  of  wampum,  blanket  clothing,  mocassin  footwear. 


INDUSTRIAL  MIRACLES   OF  THE  AMERICAN  FACTORY     303 

bows  and  arrows,  birch  bark  canoes,  a  little  crude  pottery, 
and  the  peace  pipe. 

When  the  thirteen  colonies  declared  themselves  an  in- 
dependent nation  on  July  4,  1776,  they  were  far  behind  the 
mother  country  in  the  arts  of  manufacturing.  But  they 
struggled  ceaselessly  and  untiringly  with  the  wonderful 
resources  that  nature  had  scattered  bountifully  over  the 
American  continent.  To-day  the  factories  of  the  United 
States  turn  out  almost  twice  as  great  a  production  as  those 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  Lest  in  our  pride  we  forget,  let 
us  remind  ourselves  that  the  United  States  is  twenty-four 
and  a  half  times  as  large  as  the  United  Kingdom.  While 
it  may  be  pleasant  to  know  that  our  country  is  now  the 
leading  manufacturing  nation  on  earth,  we  must  remember 
that  its  area  and  natural  resources  are  equal  to  those  of 
the  entire  continent  of  Europe,  —  all  of  which  means  that 
the  future  has  a  right  to  expect  more  of  us  than  we  have 
accomplished  in  the  past. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Define  manufacturing,  factory. 

2.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  raw  material  and  a  manu- 
factured article  ?  Illustrate  by  a  food,  an  article  of  clothing,  a 
piece  of  furniture. 

3.  Prepare  a  large  card  exhibit  of  specimens  of  cotton  cloth. 
Of  woolen  cloth. 

4.  Make  as  large  a  list  of  food  products  as  you  can.  Of 
wearing  apparel.  Of  furniture.  Opposite  each  article  write  the 
name  of  a  place  where  it  may  have  been  made. 

5.  Tell  how  you  manufactured  an  article ;  for  example,  a 
sled,  a  toy,  a  box,  a  stocking,  a  loaf  of  bread. 

6.  Fully  describe  the  processes  required  to  produce  some  article 
that  you  know  about ;    for  example,  a  chair,  a  pin,  or  ice. 


304  THREE   INDUSTRIAL    NATIONS 

7.  Prepare  a  list  of  all  the  manufacturing  industries  you  can 
think  of. 

8.  How  have  the  size  and  surface  of  our  country  influenced 
the  invention  and  use  of  farming  implements  ? 

9.  Why  are  the  factory  industries  in  wood  decreasing  and 
those  of  iron  increasing  ? 

10.  With  what  chemical  are  you  familiar?     How  useful  is  it? 

11.  Write  up  one  or  more  of  the  factories  of  your  town  or  some 
other  city.  Name  articles  made,  the  sources  of  raw  materials, 
the  factory  processes.  State  reasons  for  the  factory's  location 
and  success. 

12.  Why  have  the  New  England  States  excelled  so  long  in 
textile  manufactures?  The  Lake  States  in  iron  and  steel? 
The  Central  States  in  meat  products  ? 

13.  Name  articles  that  were  formerly  made  of  wood  but  are 
now  constructed  of  iron. 

14.  What  advantages  has  a  seaport  factory  over  an  inland 
factory?     Has  it  any  disadvantage? 

15.  Name  all  the  vegetable,  animal,  and  mineral  oils  you  can 
and  state  the  use  of  each. 

16.  By  means  of  cross-shaped  marks  of  various  colors,  show 
on  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  the  chief  centers  for 
the  manufacture  of  the  following  products  :  shoes,  red ;  textiles, 
blue ;  iron  and  steel,  green  ;  meat,  yellow  ;  flour,  brown  ;  refined 
sugar,  black. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

DOMESTIC   EXCHANGE   OF    GOODS   IN   THE   UNITED 

STATES 

Early  Transportation  by  Water.  —  When  our  country 
was  first  settled,  the  rivers  and  coast  waters  were  the  chief 
transportation  routes.  Nearly  all  of  the  early  settlements 
were  made  near  the  mouths  of  navigable  rivers,  and  the 
inland  movement  of  the  colonists  followed  these  streams. 
Thus  the  settlements  were  connected  by  water  with  one 
another  and  with  Europe.  The  hunters  and  trappers  fol- 
lowed the  rivers  and  lakes  far  into  the  interior  of  the  country 
and  these  waterways  carried  the  furs  and  pelts  down  to  the 
coast  towns. 


A  primitive  means  of  transportation. 

305 


3o6 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


Settlers  crossing  the  Great  Plains. 


Early  Roads.  —  The  earliest  settlers  found  only  Indian 
trails  in  the  wilderness.  For  years  they  could  do  little  to 
improve  the  primitive  routes.  Sometimes  footpaths  were 
enlarged  to  bridle  paths,  and  these  in  turn  were  widened 
into  wagon  roads.  In  time  well-made  turnpikes  gave 
considerable  impetus  to  travel.  In  1639  the  Massachusetts 
General  Court  ordered  each  town  to  build  a  highway  to  its 
neighboring  town.  As  late  as  1804,  most  of  the  trip  from 
Boston  to  New  York  had  to  be  made  on  horseback.  Build- 
ing roads  in  colonial  times  was  very  difficult,  because  of 
the  wilderness,  want  of  money,  and  lack  of  cooperation 
among  the  colonies.  It  was  harder  for  the  pioneers  to 
build  a  good  intercolonial  road  than  for  people  nowadays 
to  construct  an  international  route.  The  leveling  of  hills, 
the  draining  of  swamps,  and  the  building  of  bridges  seemed 
impossible  tasks  until   the  very  close  of   the  eighteenth 


DOMESTIC  EXCHANGE  OF  GOODS   IN  UNITED  STATES     307 

century.  Travel  in  carriages  was  a  luxury  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century.  Private  individuals 
and  firms  lacked  the  initiative  to  undertake  frontier  road 
making.  The  states  voted  that  money  obtained  from  land 
sales  and  lotteries  be  spent  in  building  roads  between  out- 
lying settlements.  The  National  government  also  under- 
took to  aid  the  improvement  of  transportation  by  building 
the  Cumberland  Road  from  Fort  Cumberland  on  the  Poto- 
mac to  Wheehng,  West  Virginia.  Later  the  road  was 
extended  through  Ohio  and  Indiana  to  VandaHa,  Illinois. 


Travel  by  stage  coach. 


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200  £00  100  500 


30° 


3IO  THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

Before  this  road  was  completed  to  its  western  terminus 
the  building  of  railroads  had  begun. 

Modern  American  Roads.  —  For  a  long  time  after  the 
introduction  of  railroads  wagon  roads  were  generally  neg- 
lected. Recently  it  has  been  found  that  such  roads  are 
necessary  arteries  leading  to  the  railroads.  This  fact  and 
the  introduction  of  rubber-tired  vehicles  and  the  rural 
free  delivery  mail  service  are  causing  renewed  interest 
in  good  roads.  To-day  there  are  several  milUon  miles  of 
gravel,  crushed  stone,  or  brick  roads  in  this  country. 
Thousands  of  strong  bridges  span  the  rivers  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  States. 

River  Transportation.  —  No  country  has  been  more 
liberally  suppHed  by  nature  with  rivers  and  lakes  than  the 
United  States.  The  Mississippi  and  its  large  tributaries 
furnish  16,000  miles  of  navigable  waterway.  All  told, 
25,000  miles  of  our  waterways  are  now  serving  commerce. 
The  rivers  of  the  United  States  transport  a  very  large 
amount  of  freight  at  much  lower  rates  than  those  charged 
by  railroads.  Grain  and  lumber  are  the  chief  articles  of 
traffic  on  the  upper  Mississippi ;  while  many  vessels  on 
the  lower  river  start  thousands  of  bales  of  cotton  on  their 
long  journeys  to  the  factories.  The  Ohio  with  its  head- 
waters in  the  iron  and  coal  region  of  Pittsburgh,  carries  to 
the  towns  on  its  banks  many  barges  of  coal,  fleets  of  lumber 
rafts,  and  many  steamboats  filled  with  factory  products. 
A  single  fleet  of  barges  sometimes  carries  70,000  tons  of  coal 
down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  from  Pennsylvania  to  New 
Orleans.  Vast  quantities  of  iron,  grain,  and  petroleum  also 
are  carried  by  the  Ohio. 

Heavy  ocean  freight  finds  its  way  to  and  from  Phila-, 
delphia  by  way  of  the  Delaware  River.     The  Hudson  River 


DOMESTIC  EXCHANGE  OF  GOODS  IN  UNITED  STATES     311 

has  a  large  passenger  traffic,  numbering  several  million 
travelers  each  year.  It  also  receives  vast  loads  of  grain, 
meat,  lumber,  and  other  freight  from  the  Erie  Canal,  which 
connects  Lake  Erie  with  the  Hudson  River.  Almost  every 
river  of  the  Atlantic  is  navigable  to  the  limit  of  high  tide, 
called  the  Fall  Line.  The  Pacific  Coast  is  not  so  well  sup- 
plied with  navigable  tributaries. 

Canals.  —  Water  has  always  been  such  a  cheap  means  of 
transportation  that  in  many  instances  if  men  did  not  find  a 
river  where  they  needed  one,  they  constructed  an  artificial 
water  route  and  called  it  a  canal.  The  first  important  canal 
of  America  was  the  Erie,  built  from  181 7  to  1825  across 
the  state  of  New  York  from  the  Hudson,  near  Albany,  to 
Buffalo  on  Lake  Erie.     By  means  of   this  canal,  freight 


)  Detroit  Fhotouriijjhic  Cu 


Erie  Canal,  Rochester,  N.Y. 


312  THREE   INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

charges  across  New  York  from  Albany  to  Buffalo  dropped 
from  $120  a  ton  to  $14  a  ton ;  from  $10  for  a  barrel  of  flour 
to  thirty  cents. 

The  success  of  the  Erie  Canal  is  attested  to  by  the  impetus 
it  gave  to  canal  building  throughout  the  country.  In  the 
quarter  of  a  century  following  its  completion,  4500  miles 
were  completed  at  a  cost  of  $214,000,000. 

Improving  American  Waterways.  —  For  a  long  time  the 
river  and  canal  traffic  steadily  increased.  But  as  the 
railroads  developed,  river  transportation  steadily  decreased. 
The  waterways  seemed  unable  to  meet  the  railway  competi- 
tion and  so  their  service  became  less  efficient.  When  the 
cars  were  unable  to  handle  the  enormous  crops  of  late  years, 
people  tried  to  fall  back  on  the  waterways,  but  found 
them  in  rather  a  deplorable  condition,  owing  to  neglect  and 
to  the  shrinkage  of  water  due  to  removal  of  the  forests. 
The  necessity  for  improving  rivers  and  extending  canals,  as 
European  nations  have  done  long  ago,  became  evident. 
Waterways  associations  were  formed  to  investigate  condi- 
tions and  suggest  improvements.  Plans  for  improving 
inland  navigation  include  the  deepening  of  rivers,  the  puri- 
fication of  waters,  development  of  power,  the  control  of 
floods,  and  the  extension  of  canals.  The  state  of  New  York 
is  now  enlarging  the  Erie  Canal  so  that  it  will  carry  steam- 
towed  barges  with  a  tonnage  four  times  that  of  present  canal 
boats. 

Panama  Canal.  —  The  greatest  canal  project  of  the 
United  States  is  that  of  the  Panama  Canal  which  has  just 
been  completed.  It  cuts  through  the  narrowest  part  of 
the  neck  of  land  joining  North  America  and  South 
America.  The  French  started  the  project,  but  failed. 
The  United  States  beHeved  that  such  a  canal  connect- 


DOMESTIC   EXCHANGE  OF  GOODS  IN  UNITED  STATES    313 

ing  the  two  largest  oceans  would  be  of  inestimable  value 
to  the  United  States  and  also  to  the  rest  of  the  world. 
So  when  the  French  failed  in  their  undertaking,  the 
American  government  bought  their  plant  and  rights 
for  $40,000,000.  It  paid  the  Repubhc  of  Panama 
$10,000,000,  together  with  an  annual  payment  of 
$250,000,  for  the  use  and  control  of  the  Canal  Zone,  a 
strip  of  territory  ten  miles  wide,  through  which  the  canal 
was  built. 

Two  serious  problems  were  connected  with  the  building 
of  this  waterway.  First,  the  problem  of  sanitation ; 
and  second,  the  task  of  cutting  through  the  mountain  range 
which  forms  a  part  of  the  backbone  of  the  two  Americas. 
Both  have  yielded  to  the  skill  and  energy  of  American 
engineers. 

A  ship  entering  the  canal  on  the  Atlantic  side  passes 
through  a  sea-level  section ;  then  it  enters  the  Gatun 
Locks  which  lift  it  to  Gatun  Lake,  which  is  85  feet  above 
sea  level.  This  lake  was  formed  by  placing  across  the 
Chagres  River  a  dam  one  and  one  half  miles  long,  one 
half  mile  wide  at  the  base,  and  100  feet  wide  at  the  top. 
After  leaving  Gatun  Lake,  the  vessel  enters  the  Culebra 
Cut,  which  has  been  excavated  through  the  continental 
divide  of  the  isthmus.  The  canal  level  in  this  cut  is  the 
same  as  that  in  Gatun  Lake.  At  the  Pacific  end  of  the 
Culebra  Cut,  the  Pedro  Miguel  and  Miraflores  Locks 
lower  the  ship  to  another  sea-level  section,  which  leads 
out  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  (See  map  of  Panama  Canal 
Zone,  p.  347.) 

Great  prophecies  are  made  as  to  the  wonderful  advantages 
the  Panama  Canal  will  bring  to  America.  The  cheap 
freight  rates  will  foster  industry  in  all  lands  bordering  on 


314 


THREE    INDUSTRIAL    NATIONS 


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'^^*^'^***1MKSHBSi 

1 

IH^.-  -  -  ■'.^»^^^B 

HHraHPirL- 

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Panama  Canal  locks. 


the  Pacific,  including  our  own.  To  meet  this  new  business, 
transcontinental  railroad  lines  are  extending  toward  the 
Pacilic  in  every  North  American  country.  There  will  be 
increased  trade  between  Europe  and  our  western  coast. 

The  Canal  will  stimulate  commerce  in  every  city  on 
the  Mississippi,  from  the  head  of  its  navigable  waters  to 
the  Gulf.  Much  trafhc  that  now  goes  to  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board will  go  to  Gulf  ports.  Cheaper  transportation  be- 
tween the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  will  increase  commerce, 
not  merely  between  the  East  and  West,  but  between  our 
eastern  coast  and  Asia.  All  things  considered,  the  southern 
coast  is  now  much  more  favorably  situated  with  reference  to 
the  commerce  of  the  world  than  heretofore,  hence  southern 
ports,  especially  Galveston  and  New  Orleans,  should 
experience  greater  prosperity. 


DOMESTIC  EXCHANGE  OF  GOODS  IN  UNITED  STATES     315 

River  Ports  on  the  Mississippi. —  The  largest  river  port 
in  the  United  States  is  St.  Louis,  in  the  heart  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  River, 
where  it  receives  and  distributes  large  supplies  of  grain,  meat, 
tobacco,  and  machinery.  Memphis,  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion for  the  largest  vessels  on  the  Mississippi,  is  an  im- 
portant southern  center  for  lumber  and  cotton.  New 
Orleans,  commanding  the  southern  gateway  of  the  conti- 
nent, is  the  metropoHs  of  the  far  South.  Lying  in  the 
midst  of  the  sugar-cane  fields,  it  has  a  large  sugar-relining 
business.     It  is  also  an  important  cotton-shipping  point. 

River  Ports  on  the  Ohio.  —  Pittsburgh,  at  the  head  of 
the  Ohio,  is  the  greatest  center  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry 
in  the  world.  It  hes  in  the  heart  of  the  richest  coal  field 
in  the  world ;  while  the  Great  Lakes  and  short  rail  routes 
from  Lake  Erie  deliver  the  Superior  iron  at  her  doors.     This 


Pittsburgh,  near  the  junction  of  the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela  rivers. 


3l6  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

city  is  also  famous  for  the  production  of  oil  and  glass.  Just 
at  the  point  where  the  Ohio  makes  its  big  turn  toward  the 
southwest  is  Cincinnati.  This  city  catches  much  of 
the  traffic  of  the  Ohio  River.  Meat,  clothing,  machinery, 
and   malt   liquors   are   its   chief   manufactured   products. 


Levee  on  the  Ohio  at  Cincinnati. 

The  next  great  manufacturing  and  commercial  center  on 
the  Ohio  River  is  Louisville,  leading  in  tobacco,  flour, 
leather,  and  Kquor  industries. 

Missouri  River  Ports.  —  The  enormous  grain  and  stock- 
raising  industries  of  the  prairie  states  have  given  rise  to  two 
of  the  largest  meat-packing  centers  in  the  world:  They  are 
Omaha,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas  City,  Kansas,  both  on  the 
Missouri  River. 

Commerce  on  the  Great  Lakes.  —  The  Great  Lakes  are 
the  greatest  of  all  inland  waterways.  For  commercial  pur- 
poses, two  canals  —  one  on  the  Canadian  and  the  other  on 


DOMESTIC  EXCHANCIK  OF  C.OODS  TN   UNTTKl)  STA'I'ES     317 

the  American  side  —  have  Ijocn  built  around  the  rajiids  in 
the  St.  Marys  River,  between  Lakes  Sujierior  and  Huron. 
The  American  canal  surpasses  all  olhcr  canals  in  the  w(»ild 
in  the  amount  of  freight  carried.  Commerce  has  concjuercd 
Niagara  Falls  by  passing  through  the  Welland  Canal, 
which  connects  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.  The  St.  Lawrence 
River,  navigable  for  ocean  vessels  up  to  Montreal,  connects 
the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Atlantic. 

Iron  ore,  grain,  Hour,  copper,  lumber,  and  coal  supply 
most  of  the  traffic  carried  on  the  (jrcat  Lakes.  The  first 
five  articles,  which  are  the  chief  products  of  the  region 
lying  near  Lakes  Superior  and  Michigan,  go  east ;  while; 
coal,  after  a  short  haul  from  the  mines  to  Lake  Erie,  travels 
west.  The  traffic  going  east  is  several  times  a*s  large  as 
that  going  west.  The  freight  rate  on  the  (ireat  Lakes  is 
scarcely  one  tenth  that  of  railroads  for  equal  distances. 
This  accounts  for  tlie  enormous  lake  traf^c. 

Lake  Ports.  —  Many  important  cities  are  situated  on 
the  lakes,  because  these  waters,  besides  affording  excellent 
transportation  facilities,  are  in  the  midst  of  vast  mineral, 
lumber,  and  agricultural  resources.  From  Duluth,  Two 
Harbors,  and  Su])erior  iron  ore  is  shi])])ed  to  southern  and 
eastern  lake  ports.  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  Detroit,  Toledo, 
Cleveland,  and  Buffalo  receive  and  distribute  this  mineral 
and  other  products  carried  by  the  lakes.  Chicago,  the 
great  metropolis  of  the  North  Central  section,  and  the 
greatest  lake  port  in  the  world,  is  the  second  city  of  the 
United  States  in  population. 

Milwaukee,  a  great  grain  and  lumber  port,  is  noted  for 
its  flour  mills,  machine  shops,  iron  works,  and  breweries. 
Detroit  manufactures  iron  and  steel  cars,  automobiles,  and 
machinery.     Cleveland  has  large  meat-packing,  steel,  and 


3i8 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


(g)  DtlroU  Photographic  Co. 


Lake  steamers  at  Buffalo. 


shipbuilding  interests.  Buffalo,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Erie  Canal  and  Lake  Erie,  takes  care  of  an  immense  amount 
of  trade  between  the  interior  of  our  country  and  the  port 
of  New  York.  The  electric  power  furnished  by  Niagara 
helps  to  make  it  a  very  large  manufacturing  center. 

Coastwise  Trade.  —  The  United  States  has  the  greatest 
coastwise  traffic  in  the  world.  The  large  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
seaports,  such  as  New  York  City,  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
New  Orleans,  and  Galveston,  are  connected  with  one  another 
by  steamship  lines.     The  same  is  true  of  our  Pacific  ports. 

In  1 817  a  law  was  passed  requiring  all  vessels  employed 
in  the  coastwise  trade  of  the  United  States  or  on  the  rivers 
or  the  Great  Lakes  to  sail  under  the  American  flag.  The 
law  also  requires  all  trade  between  the  United  States  and 
its  possessions,  with  the  exception  of  the  PhiHppines,  to  be 
carried  in  our  own  vessels. 


DOMESTIC  EXCHANGE  OF  GOODS  IN  UNITED  STATES     319 

Merchant  Marine.  —  Our  country  ranks  second  in  the 
world,  that  is,  next  to  England,  in  the  tonnage  of  its  mer- 
chant vessels,  but  most  of  them  are  engaged  in  domestic 
trade.  Only  about  one  tenth  of  our  exports  and  imports 
are  shipped  in  vessels  owned  in  the  United  States,  while 
nine  tenths  are  handled  by  the  ships  of  foreign  nations. 

The  Early  Days  of  American  Railroads.  —  Swifter  and 
more  rehable  transportation  than  that  afforded  by  canals 
and  rivers  is  needed  for  modern  commerce.  This  is  supplied 
by  the  railroads.  The  first  cars,  something  like  open  car- 
riages, were  drawn  over  rails  by  horses.  Such  simple  rail- 
roads were  constructed  about  1828.  The  transportation  of 
heavy  freight  demanded  more  than  horse  power.  Soon 
locomotives  were  imported  from  England,  and  before  long 
Americans  set  to  work  to  improve  upon  them.  In  1831 
Peter  Cooper's  engine,  Tom  Thumb,  made  its  maiden 
trip  of  thirteen  miles  in  one  hour  and  gained  the  honors  over 
the  horse  with  which  it  raced.  Each  drew  one  car  of  pas- 
sengers.    Another   remarkable   engine   of   this   early   rail- 


An  early  American  train. 


320 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


road  period,  the  "Best  Friend,"  made  twenty  miles  with 
five  loaded  cars  attached.  The  early  railroads  were  all 
short,  usually  connecting  seaports  with  local  inland  points. 
Then  interior  towns  were  joined.  The  first  runs  of  some 
of  the  lines  were  great  occasions.  Some  of  the  trial  trips 
of  the  pioneer  trains  were  honored  with  music  played  by 
a  band  in  the  first  passenger  coach.  In  order  to  enlist  the 
aid  of  the  government,  state  legislators  were  guests  of 
honor  on  "  first  trips,"  which  closed  with  festive  dinners. 

By  the  mid- 
dle of  the  nine- 
teenth century 
hundreds  of 
short  lines  under 
the  management 
of  as  many 
difTerent  owners 
were  in  opera- 
tion throughout 
the  seaboard 
states.  Passen- 
gers desiring  to 
go  great  dis- 
tances had  to 
change  cars 
frequently. 
Freight,  too,  had 
to  be  reloaded, 
causing  unneces- 
sary labor  and 
,,  .  „         ,      .   ^     .  delays    so    that 

Main  waiting  room,  Pennsylvania  Station, 

New  York.  goodswere  some- 


DOMESTIC  EXCHANGE  OF  GOODS  IN  UNITED  STATES     32 1 

times  spoiled  or  Ibst.  About  1850,  a  number  of  short  lines 
in  New  York  State  were  purchased  and  operated  by  one 
management.  They  were  soon  connected  and  afforded 
continuous  trips  between  Albany  and  Buffalo.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  the  great  system  of  railroads  known  as 
the  New  York  Central  Lines.  Other  railroad  consolida- 
tions soon  came  into  existence.  The  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road is  a  great  system  built  up  by  the  union  of  more  than 
200  railroads.  Soon  after  the  middle  of  the  century,  by 
consoUdation  and  westward  extension  of  railroads,  the  in- 
terior came  into  touch  with  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  By 
1853  Chicago  had  been  connected  by  rail  with  the  eastern 
coast.  With  liberal  aid  from  the  National  government,  a 
railroad  reached  the  Pacific  coast  in  1869.  This  was  the 
first  tie  that  firmly  bound  the  West  to  the  East. 

Magnitude  of  American  Railway  Network.  — After  1869 
there  was  great  activity  in  railway  construction,  especially 
in  the  central  and 
western  regions, 
which  were  being 
opened  up  to  settle- 
ment. Since  1890 
from  2000  to  5000 
miles  of  new   tracks 

have  been  built  each  ^  "^^'^^^^  American  locomotive. 

year.  Most  of  the  unskilled  labor  was  done  by  immigrants. 
Immense  sums  of  money  are  invested  in  the  railroads  of 
the  United  States,  and  they  do  a  very  profitable  business. 
The  total  value  of  United  States  railroads  in  1910  was  over 
$19,000,000,000,  representing  about  a  sixth  of  the  wealth 
of  this  country,  and  owned  by  about  212,000  stockholders. 
More  than  1,600,000  men  are  on  the  payrolls  of  railroad 


32  2  THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

companies.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  United  States  has 
over  250,000  miles  of  railway,  which  is  10  per  cent  more 
mileage  than  all  Europe,  and  is  equal  to  40  per  cent  of  all 
the  railroads  of  the  world,  we  need  many  more. 

Importance  of  Railroads.  —  The  United  States  could 
never  have  competed  in  industry  and  commerce  with  Great 
Britain  and  Germany  but  for  the  railroads.  Distances 
here  are  enormous  compared  with  those  countries.  All 
the  EngUsh  factories,  for  instance,  are  within  fifty  miles 
or  less  of  the  seacoast.  When  we  remember  that  each  of 
the  various  industries  of  our  country  is  confined  mainly 
to  a  special  district  from  which  its  products  must  be  dis- 
tributed over  a  country  equal  in  area  to  the  continent  of 
Europe,  we  get  some  conception  of  the  importance  of  rail- 
roads. Let  us  briefly  review  a  few  of  the  great  industrial 
districts.  Corn  and  wheat  are  produced  chiefly  in  the 
North  Central  States ;  cotton,  sugar  cane,  and  rice  in  the 
South ;  oranges,  lemons,  and  other  semitropical  fruits 
in  California  and  Florida  ;  meat  in  the  corn  belt  and  on  the 
western  plains ;  and  lumber  in  the  South  and  Northwest. 
Coal  is  mined  in  Pennsylvania  and  other  states  of  the  Ohio 
basin.  Illinois  is  a  great  center  for  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements ;  Massachusetts,  shoes  and  cotton 
goods  ;  and  Pennsylvania,  iron  and  steel.  The  distribution 
of  these  products  and  numerous  others  keeps  the  railroads 
busy  all  summer  and  winter,  day  and  night. 

Railroad  Centers.  —  Many  river  and  lake  ports,  finding 
their  water  communication  entirely  inadequate,  have  be- 
come great  railroad  centers  as  well.  Other  inland  cities 
owe  their  commercial  importance  entirely  to  railroads. 

Chicago.  —  Chicago  is  the  greatest  railroad  center  as 
well  as  the  greatest  lake  port  in  the  world.       Most  of  the 


DOMESTIC  EXCHANGE  OF  GOODS  IN  UNITED   STATES     323 


n 


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324  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

commerce  of  the  United  States  moves  east  and  west,  and 
Lake  Michigan  extending  north  and  south  for  300  miles 


Railroad  yards,  Chicago. 

causes  a  great  concentration  of  railroads  at  its  southern 
end.  This  concentration  alone  would  make  Chicago  a 
great  commercial  center.  It  is  situated  in  the  most  ex- 
tensive agricultural  region  of  the  country,  and  the  enor- 
mous productivity  of  this  section  gives  a  vast  trade  to  the 
city.  In  meat  packing  Chicago  ranks  first  among  the  cities 
of  the  world.  Other  important  manufactures  of  this  city 
are  iron  and  steel,  machinery,  clothing,  lumber,  railroad 
cars,  and  flour. 

St.  Louis.  —  Although  its  favorable  location  for  river 
transportation  gave  St.  Louis  an  early  start,  its  continued 
growth  has  been  due  to  the  many  railroads  that  center 
there.  St.  Louis  lies  in  the  path  of  much  of  the  commerce 
between  the  East  and  the  West,  and  more  than  two  dozen 


DOMESTIC   EXCHANGE  OF  GOODS  IN  UNITED   STATES     325 


railroads  enter  the  city.  From  this  city  several  important 
railroads  extend  to  the  Gulf  and  inland  cities  of  the  South. 
Railroad  Centers  on  Lake  Erie.  —  Buffalo,  Detroit, 
Cleveland,  and  Toledo  arc  the  most  important  railroad 
centers  on  Lake  Erie.  At  Buffalo,  lying  at  the  eastern 
end  of  the  Lake,  the  east  bound  lake  traffic  is  transferred 
from  ships  to  railroad  cars.  This  city  is  also  the  meeting 
point  of  railroads  from  the  Atlantic  coast,  from  the  North 
Central  section,  and  from  Canada.  Detroit  is  the  crossing 
place  of  east  and  west  railroads  that  run  north  of  Lake 
Erie. "  Cleveland  is  the  meeting  point  of  iron  ore  from  the 
Lake  Superior  mines  and  of  coal  from  the  mines  of 
Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  and  Ohio.  From  this  city 
the  coal  is  shipped  by  water  to  western  points.  A  large 
part  of  the  iron  ore  is  shipped  from  this  point  by  rail  to 


t 
f 


A  view  of  St.  Louis. 


326 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


the  iron  and  steel  cities  south  of  Lake  Erie.  A  consider- 
able portion  goes  to  the  blast  furnaces  of  Cleveland  itself. 
Toledo,  at  the  western  end  of  Lake  Erie,  is  an  important 
shipping  point  of  grain,  lumber,  and  coal. 

St.  Paul  —  Minneapolis.  —  St.    Paul    and  Minneapolis 
constitute  a  great  railroad  center  of  the  Northwest.  .  From 


Interior  of  a  flour  mill,  Minneapolis. 

this  industrial  district  three  of  the  great  "  transcontinental" 
railroads  run  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Situated  close  to  the 
pine  forests  near  Lake  Superior,  and  the  rich  wheat  fields 
of  the  Red  River  Valley,  these  two  cities  are  important 
shipping  points  of  wheat,  flour,  and  lumber.  Minneapolis 
has  the  largest  flour  mills  in  the  world. 

Kansas  City  and  Omaha.  —  Kansas  City  and  Omaha  are 
the  chief  commercial  centers  of  the  Missouri  Valley.     Into 


DOMESTIC  EXCHANGE  OF  GOODS  IN  UNITED  STATES     327 

these  cities  the  railroads  bring  numerous  trainloads  of 
cattle  and  hogs  to  the  packing  houses  and  ship  out  enor- 
mous quantities  of  dressed  meats.  Kansas  City  in  Missouri 
and  Kansas  City,  Kansas,  constitute  a  single  commercial 
center. 

Denver  and  Salt  Lake  City.  —  Denver  lies  at  the  meet- 
ing point  of  radiating  mountain  passes,  connected  by  many 
railroads.  This  fact  has  developed  its  manufactures  of 
mining  machinery,  and  made  it  a  financial  center  of  the 


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A  view  of  Denver. 

Rocky  Mountain  region.     Salt  Lake  City  is  the  chief  rail- 
road center  of  the  Great  Basin. 

Indianapolis.  —  Most  of  the  east  and  west  trade  of  the 
United  States  moves  across  the  level  plains  lying  between 
the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Ohio  River.  The  importance  of 
Indianapolis  as  a  railroad  center  is  very  largely  due  to  its 
location  in  the  middle  of  this  region.  Its  grain  elevators, 
flour  mills,  meat-packing  establishments,  and  automobile 
factories  owe  their  success  to  the  crossing  of  lines  of  trade 
and  travel  from  all  directions. 


328  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

Cincinnati.  —  Cincinnati,  the  most  important  railroad 
center  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  is  the  crossing  place  of  several 
east-west  lines  and  north-south  lines.  Fine  railroad  bridges 
span  the  Ohio  at  this  place. 

Inland  Railroad  Centers  of  the  South.  —  Atlanta  is  the 
chief  inland  railroad  center  of  the  South.  Birmingham  and 
Montgomery  are  important  transportation  centers  of 
Alabama.  The  former,  lying  in  the  great  coal  and  iron 
district  of  the  South,  ships  large  quantities  of  pig  iron. 
Fort  Worth  and  Dallas,  situated  in  the  heart  of  a  produc- 
tive cattle  and  cotton  region,  are  important  collecting  and 
distributing  centers  of  northern  Texas.  El  Paso  is  the 
center  of  a  number  of  Unes  that  connect  with  Mexican 
railways. 

Electric  Roads.  —  In  recent  years  many  electric  railways 
have  been  built.  These  Hues  have  penetrated  out-of-the- 
way  places  and  developed  sections  which  the  steam  cars 


-—■-5=^                                                     .^^ 

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■  ■K  : 

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f^.. 

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^SB 

^^Bpa^Si^^^Mfii^^B^H 

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Car  used  on  interurban  electric  railway. 

had  failed  to  reach.  Interurban  Hnes  have  done  much  to 
promote  the  social  life  of  rural  districts  and  to  reheve 
crowded  conditions  in  large  cities.  Because  they  afford 
quick,  cheap  transportation,  they  have  become  carriers 
of  milk,  butter,  and  garden  produce  from  country  districts 
to  the  cities. 


DOMESTIC  EXCHANGE  OF  GOODS  IN  UNITED  STATES     329 


The  United  States  Postal  System.  —  With  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  railroad,  which  greatly  reduced  the  cost  of  mail 
delivery,  the  United  States  Post  Office  became  an  important 
promoter  of  trade.  People  write  letters,  ordering  goods 
from  distant  parts,  and  they  send  checks  and  postal  money 
orders  in  payment  of  purchases  made.  To-day,  a  letter 
with  a  stamp  costing  two  cents  may  close  a  transaction  in 
which  thousands  of  dollars  are  involved.  By  parcel  post, 
packages  of  mer- 
chandise not  exceed- 
ing fifty  pounds  may 
be  mailed  to  all 
places  in  the  first 
and  second  zones, 
and  not  exceeding 
twenty  pounds  to 
points  in  the  other 
zones  of  the  United 
States.  This  new 
work  of  the  post 
office  department  is 
of  great  commercial 
importance. 

Telegraphs.  —  For  modern  commercial  purposes,  a  letter 
is  frequently  too  slow  to  produce  the  desired  result.  Since 
1844  many  telegraph  wires  have  been  stretched  over  this 
land  to  promote  business  by  increasing  communication 
faciUties.  As  in  the  use  of  electricity  for  manufacturing, 
it  was  found  that  during  the  hours  of  the  night  the  wires 
were  not  in  great  demand.  Recently,  companies  have  made 
it  possible  to  send  night  letters  by  telegraph  at  greatly 
reduced  cost.     The  telegraph  is  very  necessary  for  the  safe 


Interior  postal  railroad  car. 


330  THREE   INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 

operation  of  railroads.  Hence,  the  poles  and  wires  are 
usually  placed  alongside  of  the  tracks. 

Telephones.  —  In  1876,  even  a  more  wonderful  mea,ns 
of  communication  came  into  use.  The  telephone  outdoes 
the  telegraph,  for  it  clearly  transmits  the  human  voice 
hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  miles.  By  means  of  this 
remarkable  invention,  goods  are  bought  and  sold  in  a  small 
fraction  of  the  time  required  by  mail  or  even  the  telegraph. 
People  can  be  in  close  touch  with  their  friends  or  customers 
at  a  moment's  notice.  The  farmer  feels  near  to  distant 
neighbors,  and  increases  his  profits  by  telephone  communi- 
cation with  various  markets,  enabhng  him  to  buy  and  sell 
to  the  best  advantage. 

Summary  of  Domestic  Trade.  —  In  railroad  mileage,  the 
United  States  stands  first  among  all  countries.  Our  in- 
dustrial prosperity  is  very  largely  due  to  the  cheap  and 
rapid  transportation  of  goods  by  the  railroads.  Without 
them  the  great  products  of  farms,  mines,  and  factories  could 
not  be  distributed  to  the  sections  that  need  them.  In 
addition  to  the  vast  network  of  railroads,  this  country  has 
many  navigable  rivers  and  lakes.  The  Great  Lakes  form 
the  greatest  inland  waterway  in  the  world.  Good  roads 
are  of  no  less  value  than  railroads,  and  the  states  are  rapidly 
building  new  highways  and  improving  old  ones. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Draw  a  map  of  the  United  States  showing  the  coast 
indentations  and  the  large  rivers. 

2.  Collect  pictures  of  passenger,  freight,  and  interurban 
cars.     Pictures  of  canals. 

3.  Trace  routes  through  Panama  Canal  (a)  from  New  York 
to  San  Diego;  (/>)  Portland,  Oregon,  to  New  Orleans ;  (c)  Bos- 
ton to  San  Francisco. 


DOMESTIC  EXCHANGE  OF  GOODS  IN  UNITED  STATES     33 1 

4.  In  the  improvements  of  what  waterways  are  you  most 
interested?  How  will  their  improvement  affect  the  industries 
of  your  community  ? 

5.  Tell  about  the  important  river  ports  of  your  part  of  the 
country. 

6.  Trace  the  coastwise  route  from  Boston  to  Philadelphia; 
from  Philadelphia  to  Porto  Rico;  state  cargoes,  freight  rates, 
and  length  of  trip. 

7.  Make  a  railroad  map  of  the  United  States,  showing  trunk 
lines. 

8.  On  a  map,  connect  your  city  by  the  proper  railroads 
with  the  six  largest  cities  of  the  United  States. 

9.  Study  a  railroad  map  of  your  state. 

10.  Compare  cost  of  sending  a  day  telegram  from  your  town 
to  the  nearest  large  city  with  that  of  a  night  telegraph  letter 
between  the  same  points. 

11.  Discuss  your  city  streets  or  county  roads  as  arteries  of 
traffic. 

12.  Name  the  chief  railroads  that  pass  through  your  city. 
Name  the  most  important  kind  of  freight  carried. 

13.  What  route  would  you  take  to  go  to  New  York  ?  Denver? 
St.  Louis  ?     Chicago  ?     Seattle  ?     New  Orleans  ? 

14.  How  do  the  Great  Lakes  promote  commerce  ? 

15.  What  do  you  know  about  the  Good  Roads  Movement? 

16.  Do  you  know  of  any  recent  inventions  that  may  still 
further  revolutionize  transmission  of  messages  or  mail  ? 


CHAPTER   XXII 
THE  FOREIGN  COMMERCE  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

Our  Foreign  Commerce.  —  During  the  past  twenty-five 
years,  the  United  States  has  made  such  great  progress  in 
foreign  trade  that  it  now  ranks  as  one  of  the  three  greatest 
commercial  nations  of  the  world.  The  value  of  our  exports 
is  greater  than  that  of  our  imports,  while  the  value  of  the 
exports  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  Germany  is  less  than 
the  value  of  the  imports  of  each  country.  In  the  early 
history  of  the  United  States,  farm  products  and  other  raw 
materials  formed  nearly  all  of  our  exports.  To-day,  manu- 
facturing is  so  extensive  that  factory  products  constitute  a 
large  part.  Due  to  our  rapid  gain  in  population,  there  is  so 
great  a  domestic  demand  for  foodstuffs  that  the  export  of 
these  products  is  relatively  decreasing.  In  proportion  to  the 
population,  our  foreign  commerce  is  less  than  that  of 
European  nations.  The  per  capita  foreign  trade  of  Great 
Britain  is  one  hundred  ten  dollars ;  that  of  Germany  is 
sixty-seven  dollars ;  while  that  of  the  United  States  is 
only  thirty-eight  dollars.  Even  httle  Switzerland  and 
Belgium  excel  us.  And  the  Dutch  average  three  hundred 
eighty  dollars  of  foreign  commerce  to  every  man,  woman, 
and  child  in  the  land ;  in  other  words,  the  Netherlands 
carry  on  ten  times  as  much  foreign  commerce  proportion- 
ately as  the  United  States  does. 

Exports  of  the  United  States.  —  The  great  fish  and  lumber 
resources  of  the  northeastern  section,  the  tobacco  of  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  the  cotton  of  the  South,  and  grain 

332 


THE   FOREIGN   COMMERCE  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES     333 

and  meat  of  the  interior  have  from  the  start  been  our  chief 
exports.  To  these,  coal  and  its  by-products,  petroleum, 
iron,  steel,  and  copper  manufactures,  dairy  products,  hops, 
agricultural  implements,  naval  stores,  fertilizers,  carriages 
and  cars,  paper  and  books,  furs,  sugar,  molasses,  fruits, 
cotton  and  woolen  manufactures,  brass,  and  soap,  besides 
many  other  minor  products,  were  added  later. 

In  its  early  stages  the  country  sent  out  immense  quanti- 
ties of  raw  material,  especially  agricultural  products.  Even 
now  these  form  the  largest  part  of  our  exports ;  but  they 
are  decreasing  fast.  Indeed,  on  account  of  the  rapidly 
increasing  population,  we  may  soon  be  compelled  to  import 
even  such  foodstuffs  as  are  easily  produced  here.  In  the 
meantime,  our  manufactured  goods  are  finding  an  ever 
better  demand  abroad.  Now  two  fifths  of  our  exports  are 
factory  products,  and  it  is  hoped  that  these  will  steadily 
increase  in  the  future.  At  present  they  consist  chiefly 
of  cotton,  breadstuffs,  meat,  and  dairy  products,  iron  and 
steel,  leather  manufactures,  tobacco,  coal,  copper  products, 
and  fruits.  Our  best  customers  are  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  Germany,  Canada,  France,  Netherlands,  Italy, 
Belgium,  and  Mexico.  These  are  not  our  only  markets,  for 
we  sell  at  least  a  httle  to  almost  every  nation  on  the  earth. 

Imports  of  the  United  States.  —  The  United  States 
imports  much  raw  material  that  is  converted  here  into 
finished  articles ;  notably,  raw  sugar,  hides  and  skins,  raw 
silk,  vegetable  fibers,  and  rubber.  Other  imports  are 
tropical  and  semitropical  fruits,  coffee,  tea,  spices,  drugs, 
furs,  toys,  wool,  dyes,  and  chemicals.  Our  island 
possessions,  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philippines,  send 
us  many  tropical  products.  The  countries  from  which  we 
buy  most  are  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Germany,  France, 


334 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 


Cuba,  Brazil,  Canada,  Japan,  Mexico,  Italy,  India,  Bel- 
gium, and  China. 

Seaports.  —  The  United  States  has  a  greater  number  of 
large  seaports  than  any  other  country.  A  city  to  become 
an  important  seaport  must  be  situated  on  a  good  harbor, 
must  have  easy  access  by  transportation  lines  to  the  interior 
of  the  country,  and  must  have  short  water  routes  to  the 
leading  commercial  countries  of  the  world.  Our  leading 
seaports  are  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Puget  Sound, 
New  Orleans,  Baltimore,  San  Francisco,  and  Galveston. 
Since  most  of  our  trade  is  with  Europe,  the  Atlantic  ports 
have  a  far  greater  foreign  commerce  than  the  Pacific  ports 
have. 

Port  of  New  York.  —  New  York,  the  eastern  "  sea-gate 
of  the  continent,"  is  the  chief  commercial  port  of  the  United 
States  and  of  the  world.     It  is  the  largest  manufacturing 


Customhouse,  New  York. 


THE  FOREIGN   COMMERCE  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES     335 


center  of  this  country,  the  most  important  manufactures 
being  clothing,  books  and  periodicals,  dressed  meats, 
machinery,  and  refined  sugar.  The  city  is  crowded  with 
factories  and  warehouses ;  the  streets  are  congested  with 
land  traffic,  and  the  harbor  is  filled  with  river  and  ocean 
craft.  It  is  America's 
chief  banking  center. 
Its  greatest  occupa- 
tion is  commerce. 
New  York  handles 
two  thirds  of  our 
imports,  and  one 
third  of  our  exports. 
Sixteen  lines  of  rail- 
way, coming  from 
the  north,  west,  and 
south,  center  in  this 
city.  Many  steam- 
ship lines  terminate 
in  New  York  and  its 
adjoining  ports, 
Hoboken  and  Jersey 
City.  On  an  aver- 
age, t!wenty  large 
passenger  and  freight 
steamers  arrive  and 
depart  daily.  Three 
thousand  freight  cars  daily  bring  in  cargoes  for  these  ships 
from  the  west.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  street  traffic,  the 
city  is  provided  with  subways  through  which  thousands 
of  people  are  carried  every  day  between  various  points  in 
the  city.     Tunnels  under  the  East  River  connect  Man- 


H 

^I^^B 

Metropolitan  Building,  New  York. 


33^ 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 


hattan    with    Brooklyn,    Long    Island ;    others  under  the 
Hudson  River  join  the  city  with  New  Jersey. 

Boston,  the  second  port  of  this  country,  has  been  a  leading 
commercial  center  for  over  a  hundred  years.  It  is  a  large 
cotton,  wool,  and  shoe  market.  Coal,  cotton,  wool,  rubber, 
and  hides  are  imported ;  corn,  wheat,  cattle,  and  leather 
are  exported.  The  city  has  extensive  trade  with  Great 
Britain,  and  a  heavy  coastwise  trade  with  other  North 
Atlantic  cities  and  with  Canada.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
important  manufacturing  centers  of  the  United  States, 
the  chief  products  being  books  and  periodicals,  boots  and 
shoes,  and  clothing. 


Boston  harbor. 


Philadelphia,   the  fourth   city  in  foreign  commerce,  is 
third  in  population.     The  city  is  an  important  manufactur- 


THE  FOREIGN   COMMERCE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES     337 

ing  center.     Clothing,  woolen  goods,  books  and  periodicals, 
leather,  cotton  goods,  carpets  and  rugs,  refined  sugar,  and 


Shipbuilding  yards,  Philadelphia. 

locomotives  are  made  here.  Its  exports  include  in  addition 
to  its  manufactures,  corn,  wheat,  meat,  and  petroleum. 
The  imports  are  chiefly  fruit  and  raw  sugar  from  the  West 
Indies,  and  carpet  wool  from  Europe.  Steamship  lines 
connect  it  with  Liverpool,  Antwerp,  and  the  West  Indies. 

Baltimore  is  an  important  commercial  and  manufacturing 
center  on  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  export  trade,  consisting 
of  wheat,  flour,  tobacco,  cotton,  meat,  copper,  and  corn, 
is  extensive,  and  is  carried  on  by  three  transatlantic  steam- 
ship lines.  The  manufacturing  interests  include  tobacco, 
iron  and  steel,  and  the  canning  of  fruits  and  vegetables. 
Its  most  noted  industry  is  the  catching  and  shipping  of 


338 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 


Unloading  oysters,  Baltimore. 


oysters.  An  average  of  thirty  carloads  of  oysters  leave 
daily  between  September  and  April. 

Puget  Sound.  —  Seattle,  Tacoma,  and  other  cities  on 
Puget  Sound  constitute  the  port  of  Puget  Sound.  These 
cities  handle  most  of  the  Alaskan  trade,  and  also  carry  on 
extensive  commerce  with  Asia.  Lumber  and  wheat  are 
leading  exports  of  this  port. 

San  Francisco,  with  one  of  the  most  beautiful  harbors 
in  the  world,  is  the  financial  and  commercial  center  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  Sugar  refining  is  an  important  industry, 
most  of  the  raw  sugar  being  imported  from  Hawaii.  The 
Santa  Fe,  Southern  Pacific,  Union  Pacific,  and  Western 
Pacific  serve  San  Francisco,  but  its  railway  connections 
are  only  fairly  good,  when  compared  with  those  of  the  great 


THE   FOREIGN   COMMERCE   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES     339 

Atlantic  ports.  Steamship  lines  extend  from  San  Francisco 
to  the  ports  of  Oregon,  Puget  Sound,  and  Alaska.  Others 
connect  it  with  Panama,  Central  America,  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  Japan,  Australia,  and  England.  Tea  and  silk 
are  imported  from  Japan,  wool  is  received  from  Australia. 
The  principal  exports,  wheat,  flour,  lumber,  canned  fruits, 
and  salmon,  are  sent  chiefly  to  Europe.  Los  Angeles, 
Seattle,  Tacoma,  and  Portland  are  San  Francisco's  com- 
mercial rivals. 

New  Orleans.  —  In  foreign  commerce  New  Orleans  ranks 
third  among  the  seaports  of  the  United  States,  being  a  close 
rival  to  Boston.  Although  about  seventy  miles  up  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  the  city  is  reached  by  large  ocean  steamers. 
The  shallow  water  of  the  river  near  the  mouth  is  deep- 
ened by  the  construction  of  walls,  or  jetties,  which  confine 
the  river  to  a  narrow  channel.       The  current  between  the 


An  ocean  steamer  at  New  Orleans. 


340  THREE   INDUSTRI.\L   NATIONS 

jetties  has  sufficient  velocity  to  clear  the  channel  of  silt 
and  thus  keep  the  depth  at  about  thirty  feet.  Enormous 
cargoes  of  cotton  and  grain  are  exported  from  this  city, 
and  large  quantities  of  bananas  and  other  fruits  from  the 
tropical  countries  to  the  south  are  brought  in.  The 
Panama  Canal  and  larger  trade  with  South  America  will 
doubtless  increase  the  foreign  commerce  of  New  Orleans. 

Galveston  is  a  rival  of  New  Orleans  as  a  commercial 
center.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  cotton-shipping  ports  in 
the  world,  and  is  a  collecting  and  distributing  center  for 
the  western  part  of  the  Gulf  States. 

Finding  Foreign  Markets.  —  Our  tremendous  gain  in 
manufacturing  industries  makes  it  necessary  to  find  new 
markets  for  surplus  products.  The  countries  that  buy  our 
cotton  are*  encouraging  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in  their 
colonial  possessions,  and  if  these  countries  should  succeed 
in  raising  much  of  the  cotton  needed  for  their  mills,  our  ex- 
ports would  decrease  unless  we  find  other  markets. 

The  new  markets  for  which  we  are  looking  are  not  to  be 
found  in  Europe  where  the  countries  are  older  than  ours, 
and  have  turned  their  overflowing  population  from  the  fields 
into  the  factories.  They  must  be  found  in  undeveloped 
countries  where  farming  is  the  chief  occupation.  In 
uncivilized  and  backward  nations  the  people  are  rapidly 
acquiring  modern  methods  of  living  and  their  wants  are 
rapidly  increasing.  In  such  countries  we  should  secure  our 
share  of  commerce. 

The  chief  reason  we  are  not  capturing  foreign  trade  as 
fast  as  we  should,  is  that  we  have  not  learned  how  to  sell 
goods.  Foreigners,  especially  the  Germans,  can  teach  us 
some  valuable  lessons.  They  have  schools  of  practical 
training  for  youths  who  expect  to  engage  in  foreign  trade. 


THE   FOREIGN   COMMERCE  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES     34 1 

German  bo}s  are  taught  foreign  languages  so  that  they 
may  be  able  to  talk  business  in  the  language  of  the  customer. 
As  soon  as  they  are  old  enough,  German  apprentices  in 
commerce  are  sent  to  foreign  lands,  where  they  take  posi- 
tions as  office  help,  sometimes  even  as  janitors,  merely  to 
acquire  the  power  to  speak  the  strange  language  fluently, 
and  to  learn  all  about  the  peculiar  commercial  whims  and 
tastes  of  the  natives.  In  due  time  they  are  promoted,  and, 
finally,  they  return  to  Germany,  where  they  report  what 
they  have  learned.  They  are  then  instructed  in  the  factory 
about  all  processes  of  manufacturing  articles  they  are  to  sell 
later.  We  must  train  our  young  Americans  in  the  same 
way.  They  should,  by  all  means,  learn  German  and 
French,  and,  if  possible,  Spanish.  When  we  have  improved 
our  system  of  business  education  a  large  increase  in  trade 
will  come  to  us  as  it  has  to  others. 

Present  Movements  for  Gaining  Markets.  —  Both  the 
government  and  business  men  of  the  United  States  see  the 
need  of  increasing  our  foreign  markets ;  and  earnest  efiforts 
are  being  made  to  compete  successfully  with  other  nations. 
Men  organize  themselves  into  local  societies  whose  business 
it  is  to  study  foreign  needs  and  the  best  means  of  advertising. 
These  organizations  are  called  chambers  of  commerce, 
boards  of  trade,  or  commercial  clubs.  Agents  are  sent  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Commerce  into  other 
countries  for  the  purpose  of  studying  trade  conditions. 
Our  national  government  sends  consuls  into  all  foreign 
lands,  whose  most  important  duty  it  is  to  study  commercial 
needs  abroad  and  report  them  to  Washington  at  once. 
Formerly  these  reports  were  pubHshed  monthly,  but  now 
they  are  published  daily.  Thus  the  government  helps  com- 
merce and  manufacturing,  as  it  aids  agriculture  and  mining. 


342  THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  From  which  sections  of  this  country  do  the  majority  of 
our  exports  come  ?     Account  for  this. 

2.  Trace  ocean  routes  between  our  seaports  and  those  of  our 
foreign  customers. 

3.  Can  you  think  of  ways  of  securing  foreign  markets  not 
mentioned  in  this  chapter  ?  (See  the  Daily  Consular  and  Trade 
Reports,  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.C.) 

4.  Name  ten  countries  where  we  might  successfully  secure 
markets  for  our  factory  goods. 

5.  Have  we  as  good  a  chance  of  securing  foreign  markets  as 
our  rivals  ? 

6.  Why  have  our  meats  been  refused  at  times  by  European 
countries  ? 

7.  Look  through  the  current  magazines  for  articles  on 
American  commerce. 

8.  Visit  your  home  chamber  of  commerce  to  learn  what  it  is 
doing  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  community. 

9.  What  makes  a  good  seaport  ? 

10.  Is  it  fortunate  or  unfortunate  that  most  of  our  foreign 
trade  is  carried  in  foreign  ships  ? 

11.  On  a  map,  connect  our  leading  seaports  with  the  world's 
leading  ports,  by  the  proper  steamship  lines. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
COLONIAL   POSSESSIONS    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Outlying  Possessions.  —  The  continuous  area  lying 
between  Canada  and  Mexico,  and  extending  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  is  known  as  "  Continental  United 
States,"  or  simply  the  "  United  States."  Our  first  out- 
lying possession  was  Alaska,  which  was  purchased  from 
Russia  in  1867.  By  our  war  with  Spain,  in  1898,  we 
gained  possession  of  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippine  Islands, 
and  numerous  small  islands  of  the  Pacific  ;  and  in  the  same 
year  Hawaii  was  annexed  to  the  United  States.  Now  the 
Stars  and  Stripes  float  over  American  possessions  in  three 
zones. 

Cuba  and  the  United  States.  —  After  Spain  was  forced 
to  give  up  Cuba  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish- American  War, 


........08     ^,»^*X1    ,^Ny  i    r^^"", 


343 


344 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


this  island,  with  the  aid  of  the  United  States,  became  a 
republic.  While  Cuba  is  an  independent  nation,  our  country 
has  certain  rights  there.  The  American  government  has 
agreed  to  protect  this  island  against  foreign  attacks ;  in 
return  for  this  service,  Cuba  has  leased  several  naval 
stations  to  the  United  States.  In  this  age  when  the  ocean 
plays  such  a  large  part  in  the  welfare  of  the  nations,  naval 
stations  scattered  over  the  waters  of  the  earth  are  of  great 
importance. 

Our  friendly  relations  with  Cuba  give  us  preference  in 
her  trade,  which  is  fortunate,  since  each  produces  what  the 
other  wants.     Our  Cuban  imports  of  sugar  alone  are  an 


Loading  sugar  on  a  ship  in  a  Cuban  port. 


item  of  great  importance,  for  Cuba  produces  more  cane 
sugar  than  any  other  region  ;  and  of  all  countries,  the  United 
States  is  the  largest  sugar  consumer.     In  addition  to  sugar. 


COLONIAL   POSSESSIONS   OF  THE    UNITED   STATES     345 

the  island  sends  us  tobacco,  bananas,  coconuts,  oranges, 
pineapples,  mahogany,  and  dyewoods ;  for  which  we 
return  wheat,  meat,  lumber,  and  fuel.  So  far  we  have  not 
captured  her  trade  in  manufactured  imports,  which  she 
receives  largely  from  Great  Britain,  Spain,  Germany,  and 
France. 

Porto  Rico.  —  Porto  Rico  received  the  Americans  with 
open  arms  at  the  time  of  the  revolt  against  Spain.     Since 


LAN 


BAN 


DESECHIO^     AguadiUaJl        C 


MONA     0  *    p   ,      „       t^v:-      ^  -^^"■"-''"'^■''^^EQUES 


C         A 


R 


B         E 
A 


N 


PORTO  EI  CO 

SCALE  OF  MILES 

d         10        20        30 


Longitude  67"  West 


from  fi6°  Greenwich 


1898  it  has  had  an  American  government,  and  there  are 
friendly  trade  relations  between  it  and  our  country.  Its 
area  is  not  quite  that  of  Connecticut,  but  it  is  one  of  the  most 
highly  cultivated  and  densely  populated  of  the  West 
Indies.  The  island  supports  more  than  a  million  people. 
Life  is  very  simple  there.  It  is  summer  the  year  round, 
hence  only  light  clothing  is  worn,  and  many  houses  are 
only  grass-covered  huts.  Vegetables  and  fruits  are  the 
chief  food  ;  and  their  production  requires  little  effort.  Up 
to  the  time  the  United  States  took  possession  of  it,  Porto 
Rico  had  attained  only  the  most  primitive  development. 


346 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL  NATIONS 


American  schools  have  been  established,  and  modern 
machinery  and  methods  of  transportation  are  being  intro- 
duced. 

The  United  States  controls  almost  nine  tenths  of  the 
trade.  We  import  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  fruit  from 
Porto  Rico,  and  export  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  cotton 
goods,  rice,  flour,  and  meats.     Its  chief  city,  San  Juan,  is  a 


lij  U ndirauod  tt  Oncliruood. 

An  American  school  in  Porto  Rico. 


port  of  call  for  trade  steamers  going  the  rounds  of  the 
islands  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Culebra,  one  of  the  five 
small  adjoining  islands  which  fell  to  our  possession  with 
Porto  Rico,  is  an  important  naval  station. 

The  Canal  Zone.  —  A  small  strip  of  territory  ten  miles 
wide  across  the  RepubHc  of  Panama,  known  as  the  Canal 
Zone,  was  acquired  by  the  United  States  in  1904.     The 


COLONIAL   POSSESSIONS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES      347 


>t^=;^ 


\^% 


PAJfiMA  CANAl  ZONE 

AND  ROUTE  OF  THE?" 
PANAMA  CkSih 

SCALE  OF  MILES 
1 1 


Republic  of  Panama, 
from  whom  the  Zone 
was  bought,  is  very 
friendly  to  the  United 
States.  ItjhkeCuba, 
though  independent, 
is  under  our  protec- 
tion against  foreign 
attack. 

Hawaiian  Islands. 
—  One  of  the  most 
beautiful  possessions 
is  the  group  of  Ha- 
waiian Islands,  whose 
fertile  valleys  are 
covered    with    sugar 

and  rice  plantations,  and  whose  green  mountain  slopes 
furnish  pasture  for  cattle  and  sheep.  The  healthful  cUmate, 
the  invigorating  breezes,  and  the  charming  landscapes 
make  these  islands  almost  a  paradise  on  earth. 

Oahu  Island,  the  most  populous  of  the  group,  stands  at 
the  cross-roads  of  commerce  in  the  heart  of  the  Pacific. 
Steamers  carrying  American,  Asian,  and  AustraHan  trade 
regularly  stop  here  on  their  long  trips  across  the  ocean. 
The  trade  routes  between  San  Francisco  and  the  Philippines, 
between  Seattle  and  Austraha,  and  between  Panama  and 
Japan  cross  at  Honolulu,  which  has  become  a  coaHng  sta- 
tion for  all  the  world.  The  United  States  could  not  have 
found  better  commercial  and  strategic  possessions. 

Hawaiian  Products.  —  The  warm  climate  and  the  rich 
volcanic  soilmake  the  raising  of  sugar  cane  the  most  profit- 
able business  on  the  island.     The  yield  of  cane  per  acre 


348 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


is  unsurpassed,  because  the  most  improved  methods  of 
cultivation  are  employed.  Sugar  forms  ninety-five  per  cent 
of  the  total  exports  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Most  of  it  goes 
to  San  Francisco,  the  rest  to  New  York  and  Philadelphia. 
Rice,  fruit,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  hides  are  also  exported. 


The  people  of  Hawaii  reahze  the  drawbacks  of  having 
practically  only  one  source  of  income.  They  are  trying 
to  develop  other  crops,  such  as  rice,  bananas,  pineapples, 
and  coffee.  Manufacturing  is  being  developed,  and  the 
canning  of  pineapples  and  other  fruits  is  already  an  im- 
portant industry.  The  United  States  has  most  of  the 
Hawaiian  trade.  In  return  for  their  sugar  and  fruits,  we 
send  them  lumber,  hardware,  machinery,  groceries,  dry 
goods,  and  clothing. 

The  People  of  Hawaii.  —  The  Hawaiian  Islands  have  a 
very  mixed  population,  composed  of  natives,  Chinese, 
Japanese,  Portuguese,  and  about  ten  thousand  Americans, 


COLONIAL  POSSESSIONS  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES    349 

British,  and  Germans.  The  business  of  these  islands  is 
controlled  mostly  by  citizens  of  the  United  States,  who  have 
introduced  modern  improvements  of  every  kind,  —  roads, 
railways,  ships,  wireless  telegraph,  telephones,  electric 
light,  and  trolley  cars.  The  Pacific  cable  connects  these 
islands  with  San  Francisco. 

Samoa  and  Guam.  —  The  United  States  owns  a  number 
of  small  islands  that  form  important  commercial  stations 
between  Hawaii  and  the  western  shores  of  the  Pacific. 
Between  Australia  and  Hawaii  lie  the  Samoan  group  of 
islands.  Five  of  these  belong  to  the  United  States.  While 
they  have  little  commercial  value,  the  natural  harbor  of 
Pago  Pago  makes  an  excellent  naval  station.  Guam  is  a 
fertile  island  lying  between  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines.  Its 
chief  use  now  is  as  a  cable  and  coaling  station.  There  are 
several  other  small  islands  which  form  parts  of  the  American 
chain  across  the  Pacific. 

The  Philippine  Islands.  —  The  tropical  Phihppines, 
numbering  between  two  thousand  and  three  thousand 
islands,  extend  over  a  distance  north  and  south  equal  to 
that  from  Duluth  to  New  Orleans,  and  east  and  west  from 
Chicago  to  New  York.  Their  area  is  almost  equal  to  that 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  islands  are  not  well 
adapted  to  white  settlers  because  of  the  moist  tropical 
chmate. 

The  People.  —  The  eight  million  inhabitants  consist  of 
Malays,  Negroes,  Chinese,  Japanese,  Spaniards,  British, 
and  Americans.  The  Malay  population,  about  seven 
million  in  number,  are  called  Filipinos.  The  majority  of 
the  people  are  very  ignorant ;  they  have  low  standards  of 
living,  and  are  satisfied  with  the  barest  necessities  of  life. 
As  a  result,  agriculture  is  not  yielding  a  tenth  of  what  it 


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COLONIAL   POSSESSIONS  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES     351 


might ;    the  most  primitive  methods  of  transportation  are 
in  use ;  mining  and  manufacturing  are  in  their  infancy. 

Products.  —  The  chief  business  is  agriculture.  The 
leading  products  are  Manila  hemp,  coconuts,  sugar,  rice, 
fruits,  and  spices.  As  many  of  these  are  not  produced  in 
the  United  States,  we  have  a  very  active  trade  with  these 
islands.  The  fibers  of  Manila  hemp  are  used  to  make  ropes 
and  binder  twine.  Better 
cultivation  of  the  land  would 
greatly  increase  the  farm 
crops.  The  vast  forests, 
containing  woods  adapted 
for  cabinet  work  and  veneer- 
ing, as  well  as  for  house  and 
ship  building,  are  a  source 
of  great  wealth.  Besides 
timber,  they  yield  valuable 
gum  and  dyewoods.  But 
these  resources  have  scarcely 
been  touched.  The  mining  industries  have  not  yet  been 
extensively  developed. 

Philippine  Commerce.  —  The  PhiHppine  Islands,  with 
twenty  times  as  much  land  as  there  is  in  the  Hawaiian 
group,  and  forty  times  as  many  people,  carry  on  very 
little  more  commerce.  This  is  due  to  primitive  methods  of 
cultivation,  poor  means  of  transportation,  scarcity  of 
capital,  and  lack  of  education.  The  leading  exports  are 
Manila  hemp,  copra,  sugar,  and  tobacco.  The  United 
States  receives  a  third  of  their  exports,  followed  by  the 
United  Kingdom,  France,  and  Spain.  Their  leading  im- 
ports, rice,  cotton  goods,  iron  and  steel  products,  meats, 
flour,  and  petroleum,  are  purchased  mainly  from  England 


Hemp  factory,  Philippine  Islands. 


352 


THREE  INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


and    the    United    States.      American    machinery,    banks, 
railroads,   post  offices,   telegraphs,   schools,    and    business 

methods  are  already  greatly 
increasing  the  commercial 
value  of  these  islands,  and 
improving  the  conditions  of 
the  people. 

Conclusion.  —  The  acqui- 
sition of  outlying  posses- 
sions has  placed  the  United 
States  in  the  class  of  great 
imperial  nations,  not  be- 
cause the  possessions  gained 
are  extensive  in  territory, 
but  because  they  are  important  for  commercial  and  naval 
reasons.  We  have  become  the  peers  of  the  British  and 
the  German  empires. 


A  Philippine  loom. 


Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  How  do  you  account  for  our  long-time  lack  of  interest  in 
colonies  while  England  and  Germany  were  strenuously  striving 
for  more  territory  ? 

2.  Is  it  easy  or  difficult  for  colonies,  like  the  Philippines, 
to  suddenly  adjust  themselves  to  a  new  government  ? 

3.  Could  we  have  commercial  prosperity  in  our  colonies 
without  establishing  a  strong  modern  government  there  ? 

4.  In  a  general  way  compare  the  climate  and  products 
of  the  United  States  with  those  of  her  colonies. 

5.  Which  of  our  colonial  possessions  do  you  consider  the 
most  valuable  ?     Why  ? 

6.  Of  what  political  and  commercial  advantage  to  the  United 
States  is  the  American  Pacific  cable  which  connects  her  islands 
with  the  mainland? 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

THE    MATERIAL,    SOCIAL,    AND     POLITICAL    STATUS 
OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    TO-DAY 

Material  Resources.  —  The  United  States,  stretching 
from  ocean  to  ocean  and  from  the  Gulf  to  the  Great  Lakes, 
is  a  storehouse  of  rich  treasures.  Extensive  areas  of  fertile 
farm  lands,  rich  mines,  extensive  forests  of  valuable  timber, 
navigable  lakes  and  rivers,  and  swift  streams  furnishing 
enormous  water  power  are  some  of  our  greatest  natural  re- 
sources. Our  country  produces  more  coal  and  iron  than 
any  other  country.  Larger  crops  of  corn  and  cotton  are 
grown  in  the  United  States  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  world  ; 
and  our  wheat  crop  is  larger  than  that  of  any  other  country. 
In  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  goods,  flour,  meats,  and 
many  other  important  products  we  excel  all  other  countries. 

Conservation  of  Natural  Resources.  —  So  vast  were  our 
natural  resources  that  for  a  long  time  we  were  extravagant 
in  the  use  of  them.  At  last  we  realized  the  danger  of  waste- 
fulness, and  we  are  now  beginning  to  conserve  the  material 
wealth  of  our  country.  We  are  guarding  our  forests  against 
fires  that  in  past  years  have  caused  such  appalling  losses. 
Unnecessary  waste  in  lumbering  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  wood  products  is  growing  less  each  year.  By  more  care- 
ful methods  of  mining  we  are  securing  a  larger  percentage 
of  the  available  mineral  supply  than  ever  before.  Through 
scientific  methods  of  agriculture  we  are  obtaining  larger 
crops  than  heretofore,  and  at  the  same  time  we  keep  the 
soil  up  to  its  full  measure  of  fertility. 

353 


354  THREE    INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

People.  —  It  required  the  brain  and  brawn,  not  merely 
of  one  but  of  many  nationalities,  to  develop  the  wonderful 
resources  of  the  United  States.  Fundamentally,  America 
is  English  ;  but  descendants  of  Germany,  Sweden,  Holland, 
France,  and  Spain  worked  at  this  gigantic  task  from  the 
very  start.  In  later  years,  Italians,  Russians,  and  Austrians 
sought  and  found  homes  in  America  and  are  adding  their 
share  of  effort  to  the  building  up  of  this  great  nation. 
Moreover  the  negro,  the  red  man,  and  the  Mongolian  have 
each  played  a  part  in  making  America  the  most  cosmopoli- 
tan of  nations. 

Characteristics  of  the  Americans.  —  The  inherent  char- 
acteristics of  Americans,  which  are  the  most  important 
factor  in  their  success,  are  self-reliance,  push,  audacity, 
inventiveness,  fair-mindedness,  eagerness  for  novelty,  a 
world-wandering  spirit,  a  capacity  for  work,  and  a  love  of 
duty. 

Conservation  of  Human  Beings.  —  Great  attention  is 
being  given  to  the  conservation  of  the  health  of  our  people. 
New  methods  of  fighting  disease  are  being  discovered  each 
year,  and  great  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  maintenance  of 
the  conditions  that  insure  public  health.  To  promote  public 
health,  laws  have  been  passed  making  sanitary  conditions 
compulsory.  Crowded  tenements  are  being  abolished. 
Cities  are  cleaning  streets  and  alleys,  quarantining  conta- 
gious diseases,  and  inspecting  food  supplies.  The  hours 
of  labor  have  been  reduced  from  sixteen  and  eighteen  to 
ten  and  eight.  Children  are  not  permitted  to  work  at  all 
in  certain  occupations.  Laws  are  enforced  to  prevent  acci- 
dents in  mines,  factories,  and  on  railroad  trains. 

Government  by  the  People.  —  Our  laws  are  made  by 
Congress,  which  consists  of  the  Senate  and  the  House  of 


THE   UNITED   STATES  TO-DAY 


355 


Representatives.  The  members  of  both  houses  of  Congress 
are  elected  by  the  people.  The  term  of  ofhce  of  Senators  is 
six  years,  that  of  Representatives  is  two  years.  The  chief 
executive  of  the  United  States  is  the  President,  elected  for 
four  years.  He  may  advise  Congress  on  governmental 
afifairs,  but  is  unable  to  make  a  law.  In  many  respects  he 
is  subject  to  other  departments  of  the  government.  All 
American  officials  are  responsible  to  the  people.  Our 
liberal  government  gives  the  citizens  wonderful  privileges, 
but  it  also  lays  great  duties  on  us.  We  must  all  help  to 
work  out  the  national  welfare.  Republics  are  safe  only 
when  all  the  people  realize  their  responsibilities  and  "strive 
after  high,  standards  of  living. 

Education  in  the  United  States.  —  The  public  schools  in 
our  country  are  supported  generously  by   taxation,   and 


A  class  in  cooking. 


356 


THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 


parents  and  guardians  are  compelled  by  law  to  send  their 
children  to  school  for  a  specified  number  of  years.  The 
more  progressive  states  are  now  raising  the  age  limit  at 
which  pupils  may  stop  school  from  fourteen  years  to  six- 
teen. More  subjects  are  constantly  added  to  the  curricu- 
lum, such  as  hygiene  and  industrial  training.     More  money 


A  class  in  woodworking. 

is  being  spent  on  elementary  schools,  high  schools,  agricul- 
tural colleges,  universities,  trade  and  professional  schools. 
Plans  are  being  made  for  every  kind  of  commercial  training. 
This  nation  gives  so  much  attention  to  the  education  of  the 
youth  because  the  people  believe  that  it  is  the  chief  means 
of  assuring  their  future  welfare. 

Means  of  Recreation.  —  We  give  considerable  attention 
to  recreation  and  pleasure.  Good  plays,  operas,  and  con- 
certs are  offered  to  the  public  in  winter  ;  and  outdoor  musi- 
cal entertainments  are  furnished  in  summer.     Newspapers 


THE   UNITED   STATES   TO-DAY 


357 


and  magazines  devoted  to  every  possible  interest  may  be 
had  at  small  cost.  Most  of  the  American  homes  have 
lawns  of  their  own,  and  there  are  many  public  parks  and 
playgrounds  in  the  large  cities.  The  rivers  and  lakes 
afford  boating  and  swimming.     Working  hours  are  short- 


School  children  dancing  in  public  recreation  grounds. 


ened  in  summer.  The  Saturday  half  holiday  and  the  annual 
two  weeks'  vacation,  usually  with  pay,  are  important  fac- 
tors in  making  efficient  American  citizens.  No  other 
country  offers  more  magnificent  recreation  centers  than 
ours.  There  are  the  many  famous  Atlantic  summer  resorts, 
the  lakes  of  Maine,  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, the  Green  Mountains  and  Lake  Champlain  of  Ver- 
mont, the  Adirondacks  and  Niagara  Falls  of  New  York, 
the  winter  resorts  of  Florida,  the  summer  resorts  of  north- 
ern Michigan,  the  wonderful  caves  of   Indiana  and  Ken- 


358  THREE   INDUSTRIAL   NATIONS 

tucky,  the  Great  Lakes  of  the  North,  and  the  glorious 
mountains  of  the  West. 

Good  Will  of  Other  Countries.  —  The  United  States  is  on 
friendly  terms,  not  only  with  other  countries  of  North 
America,  but  also  with  all  the  other  nations  of  the  world. 
By  carefully  observing  the  rules  of  neutraUty  when  other 
countries  are  at  war,  by  giving  disinterested  advice  when 
they  reach  a  crisis,  by  furthering  the  cause  of  peace  in  other 
lands,  and  by  exercising  a  strong  sense  of  the  rights  of  others, 
our  country  has  gained  for  herself  the  good  will  and  respect 
of  the  world. 

Our  Relations  with  England  and  Germany.  —  The  year 
1 9 14  marks  the  hundredth  anniversary  of  peace  between 
England  and  the  United  States.  The  bonds  of  friendship 
are  becoming  stronger  every  year.  We  have  never  had  a 
war  with  Germany.  Besides  this  fortunate  condition,  the 
fact  that  the  Germans  have  many  American  relatives  has 
developed  an  inestimable  feeling  of  good  will  between  the 
two  nations.  As  England  is  our  mother  country,  so  Ger- 
many may  in  a  sense  be  called  our  fatherland.  The  people 
of  these  two  countries  and  our  own  have  many  common 
traits ;  such  as,  their  earnest  appHcation  to  industry ;  their 
world-wandering  spirit;  their  love  of  freedom;  and  their 
intense  desire  for  conquest,  which  in  late  years  has  come 
to  mean  victory  over  material  things  through  brain  power. 
It  is  this  last  quality,  namely,  that  of  intelligence,  joined 
with  an  unyielding  determination  to  master  the  big  prob- 
lems of  industry,  that  has  made  England,  Germany,  and 
the  United  States  the  Three  Industrial  Nations. 


TABLES 


359 


Table  I.  —  Area  and  Population,  the  United  States 


State            .\rea  Sq.  Mi. 

Pop.  1910 

State             Area 

Sq. 

Mi. 

Pop.  1910 

Alabama 

51,998 

2,138,093 

North  Dakota 

70,837 

577,056 

Arizona 

113,956 

204,354 

Ohio 

41 

,040 

4,767,121 

Arkansas 

53,335 

1,574,449 

Oklahoma 

70 

.057 

1,657,155 

California 

158,297 

2,377.549 

Oregon 

96,699 

672,765 

Colorado 

103,948 

799,024 

Pt-iiiisvlvania 

45 

,126 

7,665,111 

Connecticut 

4,96s 

1,114,756 

Rhodi"  M;ind 

1 

,248 

542,610 

Delaware 

2,370 

202,322 

SoutI)  Carolina 

30 

,989 

1,515,400 

Florida 

58,666 

752,619 

South  Dakota 

77 

,615 

583,888 

Georgia 

59,265 

2,609,121 

Tennessee 

42 

,022 

2,184,789 

Idaho 

84,313 

325,594 

Texas 

265,896 

3,896,542 

Illinois 

S6,66s 

5,638,591 

Utah 

84 

990 

373,351 

Indiana 

36,354 

2,700,876 

Vermont 

9,564 

355,956 

Iowa 

56,147 

2,224,771 

Virginia 

42 

,627 

2,061,612 

Kansas 

82,158 

1,690,949 

Washington 

69 

127 

1,141,990 

Kentucky 

40,598 

2.289,90'; 

West  Virginia 

24 

170 

1,221,119 

Louisiana 

48,506 

1,656,388 

Wisconsin 

56,066 

2,333,860 

Maine 

33,040 

742,371 

Wyoming 

97,914 

145,965 

Maryland 

12,327 

1,295,346 

Part  of  Gt.  Lakes 

61 

,750 

Massachusetts 

8,266 

3,366,416 

Michigan 
Minnesota 

57,980 
84,682 

2,810,173 
2,075,708 

Territories, 

Etc. 

Mississippi 

46,865 

1,797,114 

District  of  Columbia 

70 

331,069 

Missouri 

69,420 

3,293,335 

Territory  of  Alaska 

590 

,884 

64.356 

Montana 

146,572 

376,053 

Guam 

210 

9,000 

Nebraska 

77,520 

1,192,214 

Territory  of  Hawaii 

6 

449 

191,909 

Nevada 

110,690 

81,875 

Philippine  Islands  ('03) 

115,026 

7,635.426 

New  Hampshire 

9,341 

430,572 

Porto  Rico 

3.435 

1,118,012 

New  Jersey 

8,224 

2,537,167 

Panama  Canal  Zone 

474 

50,000 

New  Mexico 

122,634 

327,301 

Samoa  Is.,  etc. 

77 

6,100 

New  York 

49,204 

9,113,614 

Soldiers  and  Sailors  abroad 

55,608 

North  Carolina 

52,426 

Largest 

2,206,287 

Cities  of 

Grand  Total                  3 

THE  United  States 

805 

074 

101,102,677 

Popin-ATioN,  1910 

Population,  1910 

New  York,  N.  Y. 

4,766,883 

Oakland,  Cal. 

150,174 

Chicago,  111. 

2,185,283 

Worcester,  Mass. 

145,986 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

1,549,008 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

137,249 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

687,029 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

133,605 

Boston,  Mass._ 

670,58s 

Birmingham,  Ala. 

132,685 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

560,663 

Memphis,  Tenn. 

131,105 

Baltimore,  Md. 

558,485 

Scran  ton.  Pa. 

129,867 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

533,90s 

Richmond,  Va. 

127,628 

Detroit,  Mich. 

465,766 

Paterson,  N.  J. 

125,600 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

423,71s 

Omaha,  Neb. 

124,096 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 

416,912 

Fall  River,  Mass. 

119.29s 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 

373.857 

Dayton,  Ohio 

116,577 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

363,591 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

112,571 

Newark,  N.  J. 

347,469 

Nashville,  Tenn. 

110,364 

New  Orleans,  La. 

339,075 

Lowell.  Mass. 

106,294 

Washington,  D.  C. 

331.069 

Cambridge,  Mass. 

104,839 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

319,198 

Spokane,  Wash. 

104,402 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

301,408 

Bridgeport,  Conn. 

102,054 

Jersey  City,  N.J. 

267,779 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

100,253 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

248,381 

Hartford,  Conn. 

98,915 

Seattle,  Wash. 

237,194 

Trenton,  N.  J. 

96,815 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 

233,650 

New  Bedford,  Mass. 

96,652 

Providence,  R.  I. 

224,326 

San  Antonio,  Tex. 

96,614 

Louisville,  Ky. 

223,928 

Reading,  Pa. 

96,071 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 

218,149 

Camden,  N.  J. 

94,538 

St.  Paul,  Minn. 

214,744 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

92,777 

Denver,  Col. 

213,381 

Dallas,  Tex. 

92,104 

Portland,  Ore. 

207,214 

Lynn,  Mass. 

89,336 

Columbus,  Ohio 

181,511 

Springfield,  Mass. 

88,926 

Toledo,  Ohio 

168,497 

Wibnington,  DeL 

87,411 

Atlanta,  Ga. 

154,839 

Des  Moines,  Iowa, 

86,368 

360 


TABLES 


Table  II.  —  Leading  Exports  of  United  States,  Value,  Principal 
Countries  of  Destination.     For  the  Year  Ending  June,  1914. 

Thousands 
OF  Dollars 


Cotton,  unmanufactured 

6io,47S 

United  Kingdom 

231,818 

Germany 

181,892 

France 

73,919 

Cotton,  manufactures  of 

28,84s 

Cfiina 

6,096 

Philippine  Islands 

5,536 

Copper,  manufactures  of 

144,896 

Germany 

46,123 

Netherlands 

26,493 

France 

25,453 

United  Kingdom 

2  2,443 

Meats 

143,262 

United  Kingdom 

61,223 

Germany 

19,143 

Iron  and  steel,  manufactures  of 

106,560 

Canada 

30,130 

United  Kingdom 

9,400 

Wheat 

87,953 

United  Kingdom 

26,015 

Netherlands 

19,380 

Belgium 

12,479 

Germany 

10,605 

France 

5,385 

Flour 

54,454 

United  Kingdom 

13,806 

Netherlands 

4,670 

Cuba 

4,058 

Hongkong 

4,502 

Thousands 

of  Dollars 

Oil,  illuminating 

74,500 

United  Kingdom 

10,007 

Netherlands 

8,849 

China 

6,349 

Japan 

4,757 

Germany 

4,290 

Oil,  lubricating,  etc. 

27,853 

United  Kingdom 

6,469 

France 

3,430 

Germany 

3,204 

Coal 

59,921 

Canada 

47,210 

Lumber 

57,781 

United  Kingdom 

13,232 

Canada 

10,434 

Tobacco,  unmanufactured 

53,964 

United  Kingdom 

20,698 

Italy 

6,114 

France 

4,783 

Germany 

4,014 

Agricultural  implements 

31,966 

Russia 

6,496 

Argentina 

4,345 

France 

4,150 

Germany 

3,216 

Canada 

3,073 

Automobiles 

26,575 

Canada 

5,920 

United  Kingdom 

5,8  S3 

Leading  Imports  of  United  States,  Value,  Principal   Coltsttries  of 
Origin.     For  the  Year  Ending  June,  19 14. 


Thousands 

Thousands 

OF  Dollars 

OF  Dollars 

Coffee 

110,725 

Copper  in  ore,  pigs, 

ingots,  etc. 

54,322 

Brazil 

76,016 

Mexico 

14,457 

Columbia 

11,556 

Canada 

7,947 

Mexico 

8,028 

Peru 

6,598 

Venezuela 

6,194 

Chile 

6,126 

Central  American  countries 

4,944 

Spain 

5,280 

Sugar,  cane 

101,366 

Wool,  unmanufactured 

52,619 

Cuba 

98,39s 

United  Kingdom 

19,377 

Philippine  Islands 

2,554 

Argentina 

7,563 

Silk,  raw 

97,828 

Australia  and  New  Zealand 

6,936 

Japan 

71,345 

Cattle 

52,182 

China 

15,919 

Argentina 

16,166 

Italy 

8,781 

Canada 

7,133 

Rubber,  crude 

71,220 

Mexico 

5,479 

United  Kingdom  (reexported) 

31.152 

Jute,  fabrics  of 

42,421 

Brazil 

16,319 

India 

35,273 

Cotton,  manufactured  and  unmanu- 

Tobacco 

35,029 

factured 

70,841 

Cuba 

16,385 

United  Kingdom 

16,197 

Turkey 

9:837 

Egypt  (raw  cotton) 

12,276 

Art  works 

35,010 

Germany 

12,016 

France 

22,332 

France 

11,763 

United  Kingdom 

7,937 

Switzerland 

9,670 

Sisal  hemp 
Mexico 

25,861 
22,980 

TABLES 


361 


Table  III.  — OCEAN   STEAMSHIP   ROUTES 


From  San  Francisco  to 


City 

Route 

Miles 

City 

Route 

Miles 

Honolulu 

Direct 

2,091 

Sitka 

Direct 

1,302 

Hongkong 

Via  Honolulu 

7.030 

Unalaska 

Direct 

2.051 

Yokohama 

Direct 

4,799 

Nome 

Via  Unalaska 

2,706 

Apia 

Direct 

4,161 

Mazatlan 

Direct 

1,337 

Auckland 

Via  Apia 

5. 742 

Acapulco 

Direct 

1.833 

Sydney 

Via  Honolulu 

6,Sii 

Panama 

Direct 

3.24s 

Melbourne 

Via  Honolulu 

7.033 

Callao 

Direct 

3.987 

Guam 

Via  Honolulu 

5. 428 

Valparaiso 

Direct 

5,140 

Manila 

Via  Honolulu 

6.934 

Punta  Arenas 

Direct 

6.193 

Singapore 

Via  Manila 

8,304 

New  York 

Via  Magellan 

Strait 

I3,I3S 

Port  Townsend 

Direct 

770 

New  York 

Via  Panama  Canal 

5,262 

From  New  Orleans  to 


City 

Route                Miles 

City 

Route 

Miles 

Vera  Cruz 

Direct                                798 

Valparaiso 

Via  Panama  Canal 

3,926 

Colon 

Direct                             1,395 

Tampa 

Direct 

474 

San  Francisco 

Via  Magellan  Strait    13,500 

Havana 

Direct 

601 

San  Francisco 

Via  Panama  Canal        4,690 

New  York 

Direct 

1.68s 

Valparaiso 

Via  Magellan  Strait     9,000 

Liverpool 

Direct 

4,625 

From  New  York  to 


City 

Route 

Miles 

City 

Route 

Miles 

Bermuda 

Direct 

681 

Melbourne 

Panama  Canal 

9.945 

Liverpool 

Southern 

3. 153 

Sydney 

Suez  Canal 

13.471 

London 

Southern 

3.245 

Sydney 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

13.306 

Havre 

Southern 

3.274 

Sydney 

Panama  Canal 

9,691 

Gibraltar 

Direct 

2,219 

Wellington 

Suez  Canal 

14.387 

Pernambuco 

Direct 

3.698 

Wellington 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

14.034 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

Direct 

4.770 

Wellington 

Panama  Canal 

8,522 

Montevideo 

Direct 

5.807 

Yokohama 

Suez  Canal 

13,079 

Punta  Arenas 

Magellan  Strait 

7,000 

Yokohama 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

15.099 

Punta  Arenas 

Panama  Canal 

5.967 

Yokohama 

Panama  Canal 

9.677 

Valparaiso 

Magellan  Strait 

8,380 

Bombay 

Suez  Canal 

8,186 

\'alparaiso 

Panama  Canal 

4.633 

Bombay 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

11.395 

San  Francisco 

Magellan  Strait 

13,135 

Bombay 

Panama  Canal 

14,982 

San  Francisco 

Panama  Canal 

5.262 

Calcutta 

Suez  Canal 

9,829 

Port  Townsend 

Magellan  Strait 

13.873 

Calcutta 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

12,254 

Port  Townsend 

Panama  Canal 

6,002 

Calcutta 

Panama  Canal 

14.165 

Honolulu 

Magellan  Strait 

13.312 

Singapore 

Suez  Canal 

10,177 

Honolulu 

Panama  Canal 

6,702 

Singapore 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

12,409 

Melbourne 

Suez  Canal 

13.009 

Singapore 

Panama  Canal 

12,522 

Melbourne 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

12,838 

INDEX 


Aberdeen,  52. 

Aden,  98. 

Africa,  3,  4,  20,  81-82,  239,  263,  290. 

Agriculture:  Australia,  75-76;  British 
India,  71-75;  Canada,  90-91;  Eng- 
land, 48-52;  Germany,  iii,  122, 
128-133;      United     States,     183-202. 

Alabama,   191,  257,  262,  275,  290,  293. 

Alaska,  252,  263,  268,  269,  270,  343. 

Alfalfa,  189. 

Alps,  299. 

Amazon,  20. 

Amber,  19. 

Animal  industries,  50,  51,  132,  133,  223- 
243- 

Appalachian  Highland,  177. 

Apples,  204. 

Arctic  Ocean,  255. 

Argentina,  196,  224,  232,  239,  290. 

Arizona,  208,  210,  236,  261,  262,  273. 

Arkansas,  189,  191,  216,  237,  262,  285. 

Army,  106,  157. 

Ascension  Island,  99. 

Asia,  4,  20. 

Atlanta,  328. 

Australia,  4,  26,  75-78,  224,  232,  239, 
263,  290. 

Austria-Hungary,  4,  49,  199,  231. 

Bahamas,  99. 

Baltic,  19. 

Baltimore,  259,  292,  295,  337. 

Barley,  188. 

Bath,  295. 

Bechuanaland,  81. 

Belfast,  2,  47,  55. 

Belgium,  42,  262,  332. 

Berlin,  147. 

Bermudas,  99. 

Birmingham,     England,     57 ;       United 

States,  260,  293,  328. 
Bombay,  75. 


Boots  and  shoes,  240. 

Boston,  234,  24s,  291,  318,  336. 

Brazil,  2,  193,  196. 

Bremen,  151,  152. 

Bristol,  43. 

British  Africa,  81-84. 

British  coaling  stations,  98. 

British  Empire,  35-107. 

British  Guiana,  84,  85. 

British  India,  71-75,  193,  196. 

Brockton,  240,  298. 

Brussels,  4. 

Buffalo,  231,  259,  288,  293,  301,  317,  318, 

325- 
Butter  and  cheese,  229. 
By-products,   185,    188,    195,    218,   235, 

240,  255,  276,  281. 

Cables,  20,  21,  29,  95. 

Calais,  42. 

Calcutta,  75. 

California,  25,  186,  188,    199,     205,  206, 

207,  208,  209,  210,  211,  212,   217,  225, 

233.  237,  263,  289. 
Camden,  234. 
Canada,  85-97,  267,  273. 
Canals,  58,j&o,  142,  187,  311,  312,  317. 
Canal  Zone,  346. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  81. 
Cape  Town,  83. 
Caribbean  Sea,  21,  346. 
Carpets,  234. 

Cascade  Mountains,  12,  178,  217. 
Central  Plain,  178. 
Central  States,  183,  186,  188,  189,  216, 

231,  288,  322. 
Ceylon,  19,  98. 
Charleston,  193. 
Chemnitz,  136. 
Chesapeake  Bay,  48. 
Chester,  234. 
Cheyenne,  225. 


362 


INDEX 


363 


Chicago,  187,  225,    231,    241,   259,  288, 

291,  293,  298,  317,  322-324. 
Chile,  261. 

China,  3,  4,  196,  292. 
Cincinnati,  231,  241,  259,  288,  291,   298, 

316,  328. 
Citrous  fruits,  208. 
Clermont,  22. 

Cleveland,  231,  259,  293,  317,  325. 
Climate,  9. 

Coal,  S3.  134.  274-280. 
Coast  Ranges,  178,  217. 
Coastwise  trade,  318. 
Cohoes,  292. 
Coke,  277. 
Cologne,  136,  152. 
Colonial  possessions:    England,  70-100; 

Germany,    15&-157 ;      United    States, 

343-352. 
Colorado,    25,    199,  205,  226,  233,  260, 

261,  263,  272,  275. 
Commerce:     Australia,    78;     England, 

57-61;       Germany,      115,      140-147; 

India,     73-74;      New     Zealand,     79; 

United  States,  305-342. 
Connecticut,  200,  246,  284,  292. 
Conservation,  104, 105,  127, 164-166,  353, 

354- 
Copper,  260. 

Cordilleran  Highland,  178. 
Corn,  183-186. 
Cotton,  190-196. 
Cripple  Creek,  272. 
Cuba,  2,  343-345- 
Culebra,  346. 
Cyprus,  98. 

Dairying  and  dairy  products,  226-230. 

Dallas,  328. 

Da\^^6on,  269. 

Delav^are  Bay,  248. 

DenvcE,  272,  327. 

Deserts,  25,  210,  211. 

Detroit,^2S9,  317,  325. 

Domestic  animals,  50,  133,  223-243. 

Dover,  42. 

Dresden,  150. 

East  Indies,  199. 

Edmonton,  96. 

Education,  106, 166-168,  201,  242,255,355. 

Egypt,  4,  26,  83-84,  98,  193,  196. 


Elberfeld,  136. 

Electrical  industries,  139,  301,  302. 

Electric  roads,  328. 

El  Paso,  328. 

England,  35-107. 

EngUsh  Channel,  35,  299. 

Erie  Canal,  311,  312. 

Factories,  104-105,  116,  117,  354. 

Falkland  Islands,  99. 

Fisheries,  18,  91,  52,  244-256. 

Fla.x,  196. 

Florida,  18,  208,  237,  248,  285. 

Forests,  31,  32,  46,  87,  127,  214-222. 

Forest  Service,  221. 

Fort  Worth,  328. 

France,  2,  42,  49,  199,  292. 

Fruits,  66,  132,  203-213. 

Galveston,  193,  318,  340. 

Gary,  259,  293. 

Georgia,  191, 192,  206,  212,  262,  285,  290. 

Germany,  4,  42,  108-171,   231,   262,  332. 

Gibraltar,  98. 

Glasgow,  43,  47,  55,  68. 

Gloucester,  244. 

Goats,  235. 

Grand  Rapids,  296. 

Grapefruit,  208. 

Grapes,  206. 

Great  Britain,  35-107,  332. 

Grimsby,  45,  52. 

Guam,  349. 

Halifax,  95. 

Hamburg,  151. 

Hamilton,  95. 

Harbors,  45,  67,  151,  334-340- 

Harwich,  52. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  2,  199,  347-349. 

Hay  and  forage,  189. 

Holland,  i,  27,  39,  40,  42,  332. 

Hong  Kong,  99. 

Honolulu,  347. 

Horses,  50,  237. 

Houston,  193. 

Hudson  Bay,  93. 

Hull,  43,  52. 

Idaho,  25,  199,  233,  250,  261,  273. 
Illinois,  183,  186,  225,  226,  231,  236,  275, 
281,  284,  286,  289,  293,  296,  297,  322. 


3^4 


INDEX 


India,  26,  71-75. 

Indiana,  183,  186,  226,  231,  236,  274,  281, 

283,  298. 
Indianapolis,  231,  259,  288,  327. 
Indian  Ocean,  19,  20. 
Industrial  centers,  61-68,  147-153,  286- 

302,  315-318,  322-328. 
Inventions,  55. 

Iowa,  183,  205,  225,   226,  231,  236,  275. 
Ireland,  49. 

Iron  industries,  53,  57,  116,  134,  257-260. 
Irrigation,  25,  26,  210. 
Italy,  4,  26,  292. 

Jamaica,  99. 
Japan,  261. 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal,  142. 

Kansas,   183,    226,    229,    231,    236,    282, 

283. 
Kansas  City,  225,  231,  237,  288,  316,  326. 
Kentucky,  183,  200,  205,  216,  275,  285. 
Keokuk,  302. 
Kimberley,  83. 
Klondike,  267. 

Lakes,  Great  Bear,  87 ;  Great  Slave,  87 ; 

Winnipeg,  87  ;   Great  Lakes,  244,  248, 

258,  261. 
Leadville,  272. 
Leather,  4,  241. 
Leeds,  55. 
Leicester,  55. 
Leipzig,  5,  140,  152. 
Lemons,  208. 
Lexington,  237. 
Limes,  208. 

Liverpool,  43,  44,  55,  64—66. 
London,  43,  44,  61-64. 
Long  Island  Sound,  248. 
Los  Angeles,  210,  301. 
Louisiana,  189,  198,  208,  216. 
Louisville,  316. 
Lowell,  233. 
Lynn,  241,  298. 

Mail  service,  29 ;   Germany,  144. 
Maine,  203,  215,  246,  284,  289. 
Mainz,  153. 
Malta,  98. 

Manchester:    England,  55,  56,  60,  66; 
United  States,  234. 


Manufacturing :    in  general,  28 ;    British 

India,    73 ;     Canada,    93 ;     Germany, 

116,    117,    135-140;     Great    Britain, 

54-57  ;    United  States,  286-304. 
Maryland,  289. 
Massachusetts,  207,  246,  284,  286,  290, 

296,  297,  322. 
Mediterranean,  20,  21. 
Memphis,  193,  315. 
Mexico,  I,  261,  263,  273;     Gulf,  21. 
Michigan,  188,  199,  203,    204,  205,  207, 

215,  226,  233,  257. 
Middle  Atlantic  States,   189,   247,   288. 
Milk,  226. 

Milwaukee,  231,  288,  317. 
Mining:    in  general,  13,  28;    Australia, 

77;    Canada,   91;     England,   53,   54; 

Germany,    133-135 ;     United    States, 

257-285. 
Minneapolis,  187,  288,  326. 
Minnesota,  186,  188,  196,  215,  225,  226, 

229,  257. 
Missouri,  183,  186,    205,    216,   225,  226, 

231,  236,  261,  262,  296. 
Mobile,  193. 
Montana,  190,  196,  226,  233,  250,  261, 

263,  273. 
Montgomery,  193,  328. 
Montreal,  95. 
Mules,  237. 
Munich,  125,  150. 

Natal,  81. 

Navy,  106,  160. 

Nebraska,  183,  186,  225,  226,  229,  231. 

Netherlands,  i,  27,  39,  40,  42,  332. 

Nevada,  263,  273. 

New  Bedford,  254. 

Newcastle,  47,  59. 

New  England  States,  189,  244,  290,  291. 

Newfoundland,  97,  246. 

New  Hampshire,  215. 

New  Jersey,  207,  247,  289,  292,  297,  298. 

New  Mexico,  233. 

New  Orleans,  193,  315,  318,  339. 

New    York    (state),  203,  204,  207,  215, 

225,  226,  247,  257,  283,  284,  286,  289, 

291,  292,  296,  297,  298. 
New    York    (city),   234,   241,   259,   288, 

291,  296,  298,  299,  318,  334-336. 
New  Zealand,  78-81,  239. 
Niagara  Falls,  32. 


INDEX 


365 


Nome,  269. 

North  Carolina,  200,  290. 
North  Dakota,  186,  196. 
North  Sea,  21,  35. 

Oats,  1 88. 

Ohio,  183,  186,  205,    207,  226,  231,  233, 
236,  275,  280,  2S4,  293,   296,  297,  298. 
Oklahoma,  183,  216,  282. 
Olives,  209. 

Omaha,  225,  231,  237,  288,  316,  326. 
Orange  Free  State,  81. 
Oregon,  25,  211,  233,  249,  262. 
Ostriches,  3,  81-83,  236. 
Ottawa,  95. 

Pacific  Ocean,  21. 

Panama  Canal,  21,  312-314. 

Paris,  5. 

Parliament,  loi,  102. 

Paterson,  295. 

Peaches,  205. 

Pearls,  19. 

Pennsylvania,   188,   203,   204,   207,   275, 

283,  284,  286,  291,  292,  293,  296,  297, 

298,322. 
Pensacola,  193. 
Peru,  196. 
Petrograd,  5,  143. 
Philadelphia,    234,    240,    259,    291,    292, 

29s,  296,  298,  318,  336. 
Philippine  Islands,  349-352. 
Pittsburgh,  259,  282,  293,  295,  315. 
Plums,  206. 
Plymouth,  52. 
Porto  Rico,  345-346. 
Portsmouth,  43. 
Potatoes,  131,  203. 
Poultry,  236. 
Providence,  234,  295. 
Provincetown,  245. 
Pueblo,  260. 
Puget  Sound,  249,  338. 

Quebec,  91. 

Railways :  Canada,  94 ;  Cape-to-Cairo, 
83;  England,  58;  United  States,  267, 
319-322. 

Recreations,  161,  356-357. 

Refrigeration,  239. 

Rhodesia,  81. 


Rice,  189. 

Rivers:  uses,  32;  Columbia,  186, 
249;  Danube,  141;  Elbe,  42,  141; 
Hudson,  187,  310;  Kern,  301;  Klon- 
dike, 267 ;  Mackenzie,  87 ;  Missis- 
sippi, 20,  244,  302,  310;  Nelson,  87; 
Nile,  20;  Oder,  141;  Ohio,  216,  310; 
Rhine,  20,  42,  136,  141,  142;  St. 
Lawrence,  87,  317;  Sacramento,  178; 
San  Joaquin,  178;  Saskatchewan, 
87;  Seine,  42;  Thames,  58;  Tyne, 
59;  Vistula,  141;  Willamette,  178; 
Yukon,    87,     267. 

Roads,  306-310. 

Rochester,  240. 

Rocky    Mountains,    12,    178,    214,    216. 

Russia,  4,  199;    231. 

Sahara,  26. 

Salmon,  249-252. 

Salt  Lake  City,  327. 

Samoa,  349. 

San  Francisco,  254,  295,  338. 

San  Juan,  346. 

Savannah,  193. 

Scotland,  3,  49. 

Scranton,  295. 

Seal  fishing,  252-253. 

Seattle,  267,  270,  338. 

Seaweeds,  18. 

Sheep  raising,  3,  51,  133,  231-235. 

.Sheffield,  3,  57. 

Shreveport,  193. 

Sierra  Nevada,  12,  178,  217. 

Silk,  3,  292. 

Singapore,  98. 

Sioux  City,  225. 

Soils,  8,  201. 

South  Africa,  81-83,  239,  263,  290. 

South  Carolina,  189,  191,  192,  285,  290. 

South  Dakota,  26,  186,  196,  263. 

Southern  States,  189,  198,  203,  205,  216, 

237,  248,  290. 
South  Georgia,  99. 
Spain,  3,  26,  232,  261. 
Spanish  Armada,  39. 
Sponges,  18,  248. 
St.  John,  95. 
St.  Joseph,  288. 
St.  Louis,    187,  225,  231,  241,  288,  293, 

298,  31S,  324- 
St.  Paul,  326. 


366 


INDEX 


Steamships,  21,  22,  23,  40-41. 

Stockyards,  238. 

Suez  Canal,  21,  84. 

Suffrage,  102,  156. 

Sugar,  2,  131,  132,  197-200. 

Swamps,  27. 

Swine,  50,  133,  230,  231. 

Switzerland,  4,  292,  332. 

Telegraphs,  29,  329;   wireless,  31. 

Telephones,  29,  330. 

Tennessee,  216,  262,  285. 

Texas,  183,  189,  191,  216,  225,  226,   237, 

262,  282. 
Textiles,  55-57,  136,  289-293. 
Tobacco,  200,  201. 
Toledo,  317,  325. 
Toronto,  95. 
Toys,  4,  127. 
Transvaal,  81,  83. 
Trinidad,  99. 
Troy,  292. 
Turkey,  i,  235. 

Union  of  South  Africa,  81,  83. 
United  States,  172-358. 


Utah,  199,  233,  261,  262,  263,  273. 

Vancouver,  96. 
Vegetables,  203. 
Vermont,  215,  284. 
Vicksburg,  193. 
Virginia,  200,  205. 

Wales,  58. 

Washington    (state),   186,  205,  212,  217, 

250,  289. 
Western  States,  188,  189,  206,  211,   226, 

249,  267. 
West  Virginia,  216,  275,  283. 
Whahng,  253. 

Wheat,  49,  73,  77,  92,  186-188. 
Winnipeg,  96. 
Wireless  telegraph,  31. 
Workingmen,  105,  165,  239. 
Working  women  and  children,  165,  354. 
Wyoming,  226,  233,  275,  280. 

Yarmouth,  52. 

Zinc,  261. 
Zones,  9— II. 


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